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Universiti Teknology PETRONAS

Faculty of Geosciences & Petroleum Engineering
Petroleum Engineering Department
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PAM 5013 Petroleum Geoscience

Course Instructor: Aosciate Professor Gharib M. Hamada

ghareb.mostafa@utp.edu.my

1
Textbook
1. Selley, R.C., Elements of petroleum geology,
Academic press, New York, 1998.
References
1. Levorsen A.I., Geology of petroleum, W.H. Freeman
and Company, San Francisco, 1967.
2. McCain, W.D., The properties petroleum fluids, Penn
Well Books, 1990.

2
Course Evaluation
1- Homework's 10
2- Progress Exam1 20
3- Project 20
4- Final Exam. 50
Total 100

3
 Syllabus
Introduction and oil distribution
Reservoir geology
Physical characters of reservoir rocks
Reservoir fluids
Reservoir physical conditions
Oil Origin & Oil migration and accumulation
Reservoir traps
Oil exploration methods

4
Petroleum Geoscience

5
 Petroleum Geoscience
Objectives are to be able to:
Discuss basic elements of Petroleum Systems
Describe plate tectonics and sedimentary basins
Recognize names of major sedimentary rock types
Describe importance of sedimentary environments
to petroleum industry
Describe the origin of petroleum
Identify hydrocarbon trap types
Define and describe the different steps of oil
accumulation and migration

6
 Introduction
Petroleum geoscience refers to the specific set of geological
disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil &
gas exploration).

Petroleum geoscience is principally concerned with the evaluation

of seven key elements in sedimentary basins: Source, reservoir,
seal, trap, timing, maturation and migration.

In general, all these elements must be assessed via a limited

'window' into the subsurface world, provided by one (or possibly
more) exploration wells.

Determination of Oil in place and technically recoverable reserves

requires a close interaction of petroleum engineering and
geological information.
7
 Petroleum Occurrence
Petroleum Deposits are Unevenly Distributed Throughout
the World. There are two Oil poles; Middle East Region and
Gulf of Mexico- Caribbean Region
This Unevenness is Due To Three Main Reasons
1. Geological
2. Technical
3. Political

Petroleum Deposits occur in all geologic systems from Pre-

Cambrian to Recent
Available evidence indicates that rocks of certain geologic
ages are much richer in petroleum than those of other ages

8
9
 Largest Hydrocarbon Basins
by Ultimate Potential

5 of top 10
US Fields in
California
(>1 BBL)

Where do you look for oil?

10
11
 Change of Oil Reserve with Geologic Age

Geologic Age Oil reserve % Oil production%

Tertiary 58.1 58
Cretaceous 19.6 17
Jurassic-Triassic 4.3 13
Paleozoic 18 12
Total 100 100

Tertiary age continue to dominate in total productivity, due to several reasons:

1. The Tertiary contains thick sequences of metamorphosed marine sediments

2. Since the Tertiary system is late in the geologic time scale, only a minor part of it
has been removed by erosion
3. Tertiary rocks consist largely of material eroded from Pre-Tertiary anticlines and this
material may have included some oil that seeped out from the larger oil pools in the
eroded rocks
12
13
Simplified geological map of the peninsular Malaysia. Modified from Metcalfe
(2013a). Study area is located in black rectangle.

14
The Baram Basin is located in the northeast of Borneo, partly in Malaysia and the
majority of Brunei offshore. Three major fields were discovered in the shallow
water and onshore part of this basin called Champion, SW Ampa and Seria.

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16
17
18
 Projects
1. Oil and Natural Gas Reserve in Malaysia
2. Unconventional Energy Resources in Malaysia
3. Shale Gas and Shale Oil Potential in Malaysia
4. Seismic Stratigraphy Interpretation Techniques
5. Petroleum Geochemistry and Reservoir
Geomechanics

19
Petroleum System - A Definition
A Petroleum System is a dynamic hydrocarbon
system that functions in a restricted geologic
space and time scale.

A Petroleum System requires timely

convergence of geologic events essential to
the formation of petroleum deposits.

These Include:
Mature source rock
Hydrocarbon expulsion
Hydrocarbon migration
Hydrocarbon accumulation
Hydrocarbon retention
(modified from Demaison and Huizinga, 1994)
20
 Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential

Sedimentary
Seal Rock

Basin Fill
Elements
of Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

21
 Basic Geologic Principles
Uniformitarianism
Original Horizontality
Superposition
Cross-Cutting Relationships

22
 Cross-Cutting Relationships

K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity
C
E
F
D Igneous
B
Dike

23
 Types of Unconformities
Disconformity
An unconformity in which the beds above and below
are parallel
Angular Unconformity
An unconformity in which the older bed intersect the
younger beds at an angle
Nonconformity
An unconformity in which younger sedimentary
rocks overlie older metamorphic or intrusive
igneous rocks
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 Correlation
Establishes the age equivalence of rock
layers in different areas
Methods:
Similar lithology
Similar stratigraphic section
Index fossils
Fossil assemblages
Radioactive age dating

25
 Geologic Time Chart
Eon Era Period Epoch

Quaternary
period
Quaternary Recent
0 0 0 Pleistocene
Billions of years ago

Millions of years ago

Phanerozoic Tertiary

Millions of years ago

Pliocene
50 10

Cenozoic Era
1

Mesozoic
100 Cretaceous 20 Miocene
(Precambrian)

Tertiary
period
Cryptozoic
2 150 Jurassic 30 Oligocene

200 Triassic 40
Eocene
3
250 Permian 50

4 300 Pennsylvanian
60 Paleocene
Mississippian
4.6 350
Paleozoic

Devonian
400
Silurian

450 Ordovician

500

550 Cambrian

600 26
 Earth Rocks
Reservoir Rocks

27
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids

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 The Rock Cycle

Magma

Metamorphic Heat and Pressure Igneous

Rock Rock

n
a
Weathering,
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment

29
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Clastics

Carbonates

Evaporites

30
CLASTIC AND CARBONATE ROCKS
Clastic Rocks
Consist Primarily of Silicate Minerals

Are Classified on the Basis of:

- Grain Size
- Mineral Composition

Carbonate Rocks
Consist Primarily of Carbonate Minerals
(i.e. Minerals With a CO3-2 Anion Group)
Limestone - Predominately Calcite (Calcium
Carbonate, CaCO3)
Dolomite - Predominately Dolostone (Calcium
Magnesium Carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2 ) 31
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers
4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
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FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
SANDSTONE

Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components

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 FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
Geologists Classification

1. Framework Note different use of matrix

2. Matrix Engineering
matrix by geologists and engineers
3. Cement
4. Pores

PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

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0.25 mm
 SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION
Quartz + Chert
5
Quartzarenite
5

Subarkose Sublitharenite
25 25

Lithic
Subarkose

50 50

25 Lithic 25
Felspathic
Arkose Litharenite

Unstable
Rock
Feldspar 10 25 50 25 10
Fragments
(modified from McBride, 1963) 35
 Average Detrital Mineral
Composition of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
36
DUNHAMS CLASSIFICATION - CARBONATES

Carbonate rocks can be classified according to the texture and grain size.
37
From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary
The Physical and Chemical Characteristics
of Minerals Strongly Influence the
Composition of Sedimentary Rocks
Quartz Mechanically and Chemically Stable
Can Survive Transport and Burial
Feldspar Nearly as Hard as Quartz, but
Cleavage Lessens Mechanical Stability
May be Chemically Unstable in Some
Climates and During Burial
Calcite Mechanically Unstable During Transport
Chemically Unstable in Humid Climates
Because of Low Hardness, Cleavage, and
Reactivity With Weak Acid
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 Some Common Minerals
Oxides Sulfides Carbonates Sulfates Halides

Hematite Pyrite Aragonite Anhydrite Halite

Magnetite Galena Calcite Gypsum Sylvite
Sphalerite Dolomite
Fe-Dolomite
Ankerite

Silicates
Non-Ferromagnesian Ferromagnesian
(Common in Sedimentary Rocks) (not common in sedimentary rocks)
Quartz Olivine
Muscovite (mica) Pyroxene
Feldspars Augite
Potassium feldspar (K-spar) Amphibole
Orthoclase Hornblende
Microcline, etc. Biotite (mica)
Plagioclase
Albite (Na-rich - common) through Red = Sedimentary Rock-
Anorthite (Ca-rich - not common) Forming Minerals
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 Minerals - Definition
Naturally Occurring
Solid

Generally Formed by
Inorganic Processes

Ordered Internal
Arrangement of Atoms
(Crystal Structure)

Chemical Composition
and Physical Properties
Fixed or Vary Within
Quartz Crystals A Definite Range

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Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation

Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
41
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Offshore Alabama, USA ~ 10 mm 42
(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
43
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Effects of Clays on Reservoir Quality

Authigenic Illite Authigenic Chlorite

100 1000
Permeability (md)

100
10

10
1
1

0.1
0.1

0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 44
1990)
 Influence of Clay-Mineral
Distribution on Effective Porosity
fe Clay
Minerals
Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains

fe
Clay Lamination

Structural Clay fe
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
45
 Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include
Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela 46
Fluids Affecting Diagenesis
Precipitation

Evaporation Evapotranspiration

Water Table
Infiltration
Meteoric
Water COMPACTIONAL
WATER Meteoric
Water

Petroleum
Fluids Zone of abnormal pressure

Isotherms
CH 4,CO 2,H2 S

(modified from from Galloway and Hobday, 1983)

Subsidence
47
 Hydrocarbon Generation,
Migration, and Accumulation

48
Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks
Kerogen
Disseminated Organic Matter in
Sedimentary Rocks That is Insoluble
in Oxidizing Acids, Bases, and
Vitrinite Organic Solvents.

Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.

The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the

best indicators of coal rank and thermal
maturity of petroleum source rock.

Reflected-Light Micrograph
49
of Coal
Interpretation of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
(based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Generation
(wt. %) (wt. %)
Potential
Poor 0.0-0.5 0.0-0.2

Fair 0.5-1.0 0.2-0.5

Good 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.0

Very Good 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0

Excellent >5.0 >2.0

50
 Generation, Migration, and
Trapping of Hydrocarbons

Fault
Oil/water
(impermeable)
contact (OWC)

Migration route
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity

Source rock
51
Heterogeneity

52
Reservoir Heterogeneity in Sandstone
Heterogeneity

Segments Reservoirs

Increases Tortuosity of
Fluid Flow

Heterogeneity May
Result From:
Depositional Features

Diagenetic Features

(Whole Core Photograph, Misoa

Sandstone, Venezuela)
53
Reservoir Heterogeneity in Sandstone

Heterogeneity Also May

Result From:
Faults

Fractures

Faults and Fractures may

be Open (Conduits) or
Closed (Barriers) to Fluid
Flow

(Whole Core Photograph, Misoa

Sandstone, Venezuela) 54
Scales of Geological Reservoir Heterogeneity
Interwell
Well Area Well
Determined

Field Wide
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines, 100's
Statistical m
Modeling,
etc.
1-10 km
Interwell

Reservoir 10's
Sandstone m

100's m

1-10's
Well-Bore

10-100's
m
10-100's mm
mm
Unaided Eye
Hand Lens or
Petrographic or Binocular Microscope
Scanning Electron
Microscope (modified from Weber, 1986) 55
 Scales of Investigation Used in
Reservoir Characterization
300 m Relative Volume
14
Gigascopic 50 m Well Test 10

300 m
Reservoir Model 12
Megascopic Grid Cell 2 x 10
5m 150 m

2m
Wireline Log 7
1m
Interval 3 x 10
Macroscopic cm 2
Core Plug 5 x 10

mm - mm Geological
Microscopic 1
(modified from Hurst, 1993)
Thin Section 56
 Stages In The Generation of
An Integrated Geological Reservoir Model
Geologic Activities
Regional Geologic
Framework

Depositional
Model (As Needed)

Core Analysis Diagenetic Structural

Model Model

Integrated Fluid
Log Analysis Model
Well Test Analysis Geologic Model
(As Needed)
Applications Studies
Reserves Estimation
Simulation

Model Testing
And Revision
57
Hydrocarbon Traps

Structural traps
Stratigraphic traps
Combination traps

58
 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Oil/Water
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap

Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

59
Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Unconformity Pinch out

Uncomformity Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas

Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

60
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)
 Other Traps
Meteoric
Water
Asphalt Trap
Biodegraded
Oil/Asphalt
Partly
Water Biodegraded Oil

Hydrodynamic Trap Hydrostatic

Head
Shale
Water
Oil
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)
61