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Qassim University

Unaizah College of Engineering


Civil Engineering Department

Evaporation

Dr. Waleed Tahawy
















[ : ]18
Evaporation: is the processes in which a liquid
changes to the gaseous state at the free
surface, below the boiling point through the
transfer of heat energy.
This change in state requires an exchange of
585 Cal for each gram of water evaporated.
Expressed as an evaporation rate in mm/d,
cm/d, in/d.
Evaporation and particle motion
Evaporation is the escape of fast-moving
particles from the surface of a liquid.

Different particles have


different velocity. Thus,
some have higher K.E.!
Evaporation and particle motion
fast molecules (high KE) near the surface
may escape.
slow molecules left behind
a) Meteorological factors
b) Nature of evaporating surface
c) Water quality
a) Meteorological factors
1. Solar radiation - changes depend upon
latitude, season, time of day and sky
condition (cloudiness)
2. Air temperature
3. vapour pressure
4. wind velocity
5. atmospheric pressure
a) Meteorological factors
1. Solar radiation
b) Nature of evaporating surface
1. Vegetation
2. Building
3. paved streets
4. soil surface
5. snow / ice
c) Water quality
1. salinity
2. dissolved solids
Transpiration: is a process by which water
leaves the body of a living plant and reach
the atmosphere as water vapor.
water is taken up by the plant-root system
and escape through the leaves.
1. Atmospheric vapour pressure
2. Temperature
3. Wind
4. light intensity
5. Characteristics of plant
- plant type (shallow rooted species -
deep rooted species).
- available water .
- density of vegetative cover.
Free-water evaporation
Open water surfaces
Lakes, rivers, vegetation surfaces
(interception), soil surface
Transpiration
Roots Stem Leaves
Stomata Atmosphere
Evapotranspiration (ET): combination of
Evaporation and Transpiration
Potential (PET): A theoretical rate of ET
when all surfaces have unlimited water
supply.
Depends on surface albedo (% of energy
reflected) and other meteorological parameters
as well as the vegetation.
Actual (AET): The true rate of ET, of most
interest to water managers
Depends on plant, soil, and soil water
properties and soil water availability
The amount of water evaporated from a
water surface is estimated by Using:
1. Evaporation Pans
2. Analytical methods (water budget
method, energy budget method, etc.)
3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method,
etc.)
1. Evaporation Pans:
1. Evaporation Pans:
The most popular method of estimating
evaporation. The best known is the US Weather
Bureau Class A Pan.
1. Evaporation Pans
1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)
Most commonly used evaporation pan.
The pan consists of a shallow vessel about 1.21
m in diameter and 25.5cm deep.
Made of unpainted galvanized iron sheet.
Where there is corrosion problem, it is made of
monel sheet.
Water in the pan is filled to a depth of 20cm.
When the depth of water reduces to 18 cm, it is
refilled.
1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)
Water surface level is measured daily with a
hook gauge installed in the stilling well.
The pan is placed on a wooden platform such
that its base is 15 cm above the ground surface
to allow free circulation of air below the pan.
Evaporation is computed as the difference
between observed water levels on two
consecutive days.
1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)
Alternatively, it is computed from the water
added each day to bring the water level up to a
fixed mark in the stilling well.
While computing evaporation, adjustment shall
be made for any precipitation occurred during
the period.
1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)

Measuring evaporation of a lake


1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)
Simple example:
In a floating class A pan the water height at day
one was at 6 AM is 210 mm, and at the next
morning (also at 6 AM) the water level was
estimated to a depth of 220 mm. During that
day a precipitation event of 15 mm occured.
What was the evaporation?
E = P hw
E = 15 mm/d 10 mm/d
E = 5 mm/d
1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)
Kohler et al. (1955) suggested that the 0.70
coefficient is applicable to the Class A pan
when average air and pan-water
temperature are equal as did Farnsworth et
al.
E = Kp Epan
Where:
Kp: is the pan coefficient and
Epan: is the evaporation from a Class A pan.
1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)
The best values to use for Kp are those derived
from Rohwer (1931) because of very detailed
measurements made on the adjacent Class A pan.
1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)
For the previous example:
What was the evaporation?
E = Kp Epan
E = 0.7 (P hw)
E = 0.7(15 mm/d 10 mm/d)
E = 3.5 mm/d
2. Analytical methods (water budget
method, energy budget method, etc.)
water budget method
based on measurement of continuity of
water flow essentially, the budget
comprised by the various items of input,
and water storage of hydrologic system.
water budget method
Continuity equation
E = (S1 - S2) + I + P - O Os
Where:
E = evaporation
S1, S2 = storage at time 1 and 2
I = surface inflow, P = precipitation
O = surface outflow Os = subsurface seepage
(most difficult to evaluate)
water budget method
Advantage
This method is simple in concept.
Disadvantage
This method is difficult to do so accurately
because of the effects of errors in
measuring various items involved in the
water balance.
Energy Budget Method
It deals with the continuity of energy flow
instead of water flow. Use Continuity
equation in energy units
Energy Budget Method
Qn Qh - Qe = Q - Qv
Where:
Qn = net radiation absorbed by water body
Qh = sensible heat transfer to the atmosphere
Qe = energy used for evaporation
Q = increased in energy stored in water body
Qv = advected energy (net energy content of
inflow and outflow elements).
Energy Budget Method
Advantage
It has increasing application to special
studies.
Disadvantage
It involves a great deal of instrumentation.
It cannot readily be used without much
data.
3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method, etc.)
Using mass transfer, evaporation takes the
following general form:
E = C f(u)(e es)
Where:
C is constant
f(u) is a function of wind speed at a given height.
e is the actual vapor pressure at a given height.
es is the saturated vapor pressure at water surface
3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method, etc.)
The rate of evaporation from a lake can be calculated
using empirical laws,
Meyer (1944) E = C (es e) (1 + W/10)
Where:
E Lake evaporation (inches/ day)
es e Water vapor deficit (difference between
saturated vapor pressure and actual vapor
pressure of atmosphere in-Hg)
C Constant (0.36 for open water, 0.5 for wet soil)
W Wind Speed 25 ft. above water level (mph)
3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method,...)
Dunne (1978):
E =(0.013+ 0.00016 u2) e [(100 Rh)/ 100]
Where:
Rh: The relative humidity in %
e: Vapor pressure of air (mill bars)
u2: Wind speed 2 m above water in km/day
3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method,...)
Example
Use Meyer formula and Dunne formula to find
the lake evaporation for a lake with mean
value of air temperature is 87 F, and for water
temperature is 63 F, average wind speed is 10
mph and relative humidity is 20%.
Solution
-Using Meyer formula: From table, the saturated vapor pressure,
es (@63oF= water temp) = 0.58 in. Hg
es (@87oF = air temp) = 1.29 in. Hg
e = 1.29 x 0.20 = 0.26 in.Hg / (0.03 Hg/mb) = 8.7 mb
For open water, C =0.36 then E =0.36 (0.58 0.26)[1+10/10 =
0.23 in/day
-Using Dunnes formula: Converting wind speed to km/day = (10
mph) (24hr/d) (1.6 km/mi)
E = [0.013 + (0.00016 x 384)] (8.7) [(100-20)/100]
= 0.518 cm/day or = 0.204 in/day which is comparable to the
previous value.

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