[ : ]18 Evaporation: is the processes in which a liquid changes to the gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point through the transfer of heat energy. This change in state requires an exchange of 585 Cal for each gram of water evaporated. Expressed as an evaporation rate in mm/d, cm/d, in/d. Evaporation and particle motion Evaporation is the escape of fast-moving particles from the surface of a liquid.
Different particles have
different velocity. Thus, some have higher K.E.! Evaporation and particle motion fast molecules (high KE) near the surface may escape. slow molecules left behind a) Meteorological factors b) Nature of evaporating surface c) Water quality a) Meteorological factors 1. Solar radiation - changes depend upon latitude, season, time of day and sky condition (cloudiness) 2. Air temperature 3. vapour pressure 4. wind velocity 5. atmospheric pressure a) Meteorological factors 1. Solar radiation b) Nature of evaporating surface 1. Vegetation 2. Building 3. paved streets 4. soil surface 5. snow / ice c) Water quality 1. salinity 2. dissolved solids Transpiration: is a process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reach the atmosphere as water vapor. water is taken up by the plant-root system and escape through the leaves. 1. Atmospheric vapour pressure 2. Temperature 3. Wind 4. light intensity 5. Characteristics of plant - plant type (shallow rooted species - deep rooted species). - available water . - density of vegetative cover. Free-water evaporation Open water surfaces Lakes, rivers, vegetation surfaces (interception), soil surface Transpiration Roots Stem Leaves Stomata Atmosphere Evapotranspiration (ET): combination of Evaporation and Transpiration Potential (PET): A theoretical rate of ET when all surfaces have unlimited water supply. Depends on surface albedo (% of energy reflected) and other meteorological parameters as well as the vegetation. Actual (AET): The true rate of ET, of most interest to water managers Depends on plant, soil, and soil water properties and soil water availability The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is estimated by Using: 1. Evaporation Pans 2. Analytical methods (water budget method, energy budget method, etc.) 3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method, etc.) 1. Evaporation Pans: 1. Evaporation Pans: The most popular method of estimating evaporation. The best known is the US Weather Bureau Class A Pan. 1. Evaporation Pans 1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A) Most commonly used evaporation pan. The pan consists of a shallow vessel about 1.21 m in diameter and 25.5cm deep. Made of unpainted galvanized iron sheet. Where there is corrosion problem, it is made of monel sheet. Water in the pan is filled to a depth of 20cm. When the depth of water reduces to 18 cm, it is refilled. 1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A) Water surface level is measured daily with a hook gauge installed in the stilling well. The pan is placed on a wooden platform such that its base is 15 cm above the ground surface to allow free circulation of air below the pan. Evaporation is computed as the difference between observed water levels on two consecutive days. 1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A) Alternatively, it is computed from the water added each day to bring the water level up to a fixed mark in the stilling well. While computing evaporation, adjustment shall be made for any precipitation occurred during the period. 1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A)
Measuring evaporation of a lake
1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A) Simple example: In a floating class A pan the water height at day one was at 6 AM is 210 mm, and at the next morning (also at 6 AM) the water level was estimated to a depth of 220 mm. During that day a precipitation event of 15 mm occured. What was the evaporation? E = P hw E = 15 mm/d 10 mm/d E = 5 mm/d 1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A) Kohler et al. (1955) suggested that the 0.70 coefficient is applicable to the Class A pan when average air and pan-water temperature are equal as did Farnsworth et al. E = Kp Epan Where: Kp: is the pan coefficient and Epan: is the evaporation from a Class A pan. 1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A) The best values to use for Kp are those derived from Rohwer (1931) because of very detailed measurements made on the adjacent Class A pan. 1. Evaporation Pans (US Class A) For the previous example: What was the evaporation? E = Kp Epan E = 0.7 (P hw) E = 0.7(15 mm/d 10 mm/d) E = 3.5 mm/d 2. Analytical methods (water budget method, energy budget method, etc.) water budget method based on measurement of continuity of water flow essentially, the budget comprised by the various items of input, and water storage of hydrologic system. water budget method Continuity equation E = (S1 - S2) + I + P - O Os Where: E = evaporation S1, S2 = storage at time 1 and 2 I = surface inflow, P = precipitation O = surface outflow Os = subsurface seepage (most difficult to evaluate) water budget method Advantage This method is simple in concept. Disadvantage This method is difficult to do so accurately because of the effects of errors in measuring various items involved in the water balance. Energy Budget Method It deals with the continuity of energy flow instead of water flow. Use Continuity equation in energy units Energy Budget Method Qn Qh - Qe = Q - Qv Where: Qn = net radiation absorbed by water body Qh = sensible heat transfer to the atmosphere Qe = energy used for evaporation Q = increased in energy stored in water body Qv = advected energy (net energy content of inflow and outflow elements). Energy Budget Method Advantage It has increasing application to special studies. Disadvantage It involves a great deal of instrumentation. It cannot readily be used without much data. 3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method, etc.) Using mass transfer, evaporation takes the following general form: E = C f(u)(e es) Where: C is constant f(u) is a function of wind speed at a given height. e is the actual vapor pressure at a given height. es is the saturated vapor pressure at water surface 3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method, etc.) The rate of evaporation from a lake can be calculated using empirical laws, Meyer (1944) E = C (es e) (1 + W/10) Where: E Lake evaporation (inches/ day) es e Water vapor deficit (difference between saturated vapor pressure and actual vapor pressure of atmosphere in-Hg) C Constant (0.36 for open water, 0.5 for wet soil) W Wind Speed 25 ft. above water level (mph) 3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method,...) Dunne (1978): E =(0.013+ 0.00016 u2) e [(100 Rh)/ 100] Where: Rh: The relative humidity in % e: Vapor pressure of air (mill bars) u2: Wind speed 2 m above water in km/day 3. Empirical Formulas (Penman's method,...) Example Use Meyer formula and Dunne formula to find the lake evaporation for a lake with mean value of air temperature is 87 F, and for water temperature is 63 F, average wind speed is 10 mph and relative humidity is 20%. Solution -Using Meyer formula: From table, the saturated vapor pressure, es (@63oF= water temp) = 0.58 in. Hg es (@87oF = air temp) = 1.29 in. Hg e = 1.29 x 0.20 = 0.26 in.Hg / (0.03 Hg/mb) = 8.7 mb For open water, C =0.36 then E =0.36 (0.58 0.26)[1+10/10 = 0.23 in/day -Using Dunnes formula: Converting wind speed to km/day = (10 mph) (24hr/d) (1.6 km/mi) E = [0.013 + (0.00016 x 384)] (8.7) [(100-20)/100] = 0.518 cm/day or = 0.204 in/day which is comparable to the previous value.