Illinois Institute of Technology

Illinois Institute of
Technology
PHYSICS 561
RADIATION BIOPHYSICS
Course Introduction:
Electromagnetic Radiation;
Radioactivity I
ANDREW HOWARD
3 June 2014
12/18/2017 Intro; EM Radiation; Radioactivity p. 1 of 63

Radiation Biophysics:
Introduction
What were trying to do:
provide you with an understanding of what
happens when ionizing radiation interacts with
biological tissue.
Most of you are in the Health Physics curriculum:
there, youre learning about ionizing radiation
how it is produced
what it is used for
how to deliver it
how to quantify it
how to minimize exposure of people and things to it.

Introduction (continued)
You have also learned about the biological

effects of radiation in other courses.
In this course the emphasis is on the
biological effects, both harmful and
beneficial, of radiation.
But to put those biological issues in context:
Well discuss radiation physics and radiation
chemistry.
We wont spend a lot of time on those subjects:
youve dealt with those subjects in other courses.

Who is your instructor?
t I am primarily in the biology faculty within

the Biological and Chemical Sciences
Department at IIT.
t But my secondary appointment is in the
physics department, and my graduate
degree is in physics, so I'm reasonably
familiar with physics and chemistry as well
as biology.

Am I qualified
to teach this?
Im a crystallographer:
I use X-ray diffraction to study the 3-D
structures of large biomolecules
I am not a health physicist by specialization
My research is often affected by concerns for
the radiation safety of my experiments.
I'm a consumer of rad. biophysics knowledge.
I postdocd in toxicology in a DOE lab:
mechanistic studies stuck with me
Why I may be a bit incoherent
a few times this summer
t http://www.renfair.com/bristol/

How will this course work?
Live meetings: Tuesday and Thursday, 10 am-

12:50pm at IIT from 3 June through 24 July (plus
an external final), in Stuart Building Room 213
Internet: 6-18 hours behind.
Internet students are welcome to visit the live
section, which currently has no enrollees
Primarily lectures, but with discussion
Internet students: Communicate with one another
and with me via the discussion board and e-mail
Its the only way Im going to get to know you.
Be brazen! Be daring!
Special schedule, early July
t I will be attending a wedding in Oxford UK

over Independence Day weekend
t Rescheduled classes:
Class on Tuesday 1 July Monday 30 June
Class on Thursday 3 July Tuesday 1 July
Class on Tuesday 8 July Thursday 10 July
Class on Thursday 8 July Friday 11 July

Homework
We will start every class except this one by going

over the homework assignment.
The homework is generally due at 11:59 p.m. on
the Friday or Monday, 3-5 days after class, so we
won't answer the homework questions in class, but
we will discuss how the problems work, and if
there are items that require clarification we'll
provide them then.
Its okay to turn assignments in late.

Course Plans (continued)
t 2 midterms and a final
Midterms 19-20 June, 2-4 July
Final 24-26 July
All exams are closed-book, closed-notes, apart from a
help-sheet that I will provide.
You may use a calculator, but not a programmable
All exams will be conducted outside of class sessions:
we need all the class time for content
t Detailed schedule is on the course Blackboard site

Course Sources
Edward L. Alpen, Radiation Biophysics,
2nd Ed.: San Diego: Academic Press, 1998.
520 pp..., cloth. ISBN-10 0120530856.
Well work closely from textbook except in our discussion
of radiation chemistry (chapter 6) and two lectures at the
end of the course on biochemistry, hormesis, and some
other supplementary topics
The textbook is not a required purchase;
Ill cover most of what is in the book
Supplemental readings:
HTML, books, journal articles

Using Blackboard
t Portal to online lectures
t Posting site for HTML and PowerPoint lecture
materials
t Exam keys will be emailed to you
t Posting site for peer-reviewed literature
t Discussion board: Use it!
Your opportunity to mull over the material
Chance to get to know your classmates
Content-related participation does get graded

Inconsistencies
Its possible that youll see an inconsistency

between the assignments as posted on the
Assignments section on Blackboard and the
overall Assignments webpage. Which is
authoritative?
Answer: the Assignments section on Blackboard
And while were on the subject:
Submit your answers to the Blackboard
Assignments page too!

History of radiation biophysics I
Early characterizers of the

properties of X-rays and
radioactivity:
Wilhelm Rntgen: X-rays, 1895
Becquerel: radioactivity
Rutherford: radioactive chain
decay
The Curies: radium, polonium

History II
Edisons fluoroscope: 1896 However: it was his
Dont talk to me about X-rays, employees, not
I am afraid of them. -T.A.E., Edison, who got sick!
1903

Radiation and Medicine: 1895
First medically observable deleterious effect

from X-rays was recorded less than six
months after Roentgen's discovery of X-rays.
So the history of radiation biophysics goes
back almost as far as the history of X-rays

Quantities, Units, and Definitions
The world of radiation research has gone through

a major change in the units that it uses to express
quantities. As recently as the 1970's when I was
learning radiation quantitation, the traditional units
for activity, dose, energy imparted, and equivalent
dose were still in common use. In this course we
will use the more modern units except in dealing
with older research papers.

Quantities, Units, Definitions
Quantity Exposure Dose Energy
(em only) Imparted
Definition DQ/Dm DEd/Dm Ed
SI Unit C kg-1 Gray Joule
Unit J kg-1 kg m2s-2

definition
Old Unit Rntgen Rad Erg
Definition 1 esu cm-3 100 erg g-1 g cm2s-2

Conversion 1 R = 2.58 * 1 Gy = 100 1 J = 107 erg
10-4 C kg-1 Rad
Additional Quantities:
Equivalent Dose
t Effects of a dose depend on how much
energy is deposited per unit mass and on
how influential that energy is in the
medium:
t HT,R = DRWT,R
(DR=dose, WT,R= weight factor)
for tissue T, radiation type R.
t If R is 60Co photons, WR=1 (reference type)
t Unit: Sievert (1 J/kg)

Honorees
t Louis H. Gray (1905-65)
t Rolf M. Sievert
(1896-1966)

RBE and Kerma
RBE (relative biological Kerma: Kinetic Energy
effectiveness): Released to the Medium
describes weight factors for Let DEK =initial kinetic
specific biological energy of all charged
endpoints (e.g. particles liberated. Then
carcinogenesis) as well as Kerma K = DEK / Dm
specific radiation types.
Dimensions of dose
Often used in context of (book says energythats
radiation-induced tumors
and other long-term wrong)
problems. Units: Gy or rad.

Fluences and Flux Densities
Let DN = # particles entering a sphere with

cross sectional area Da (total area a = 4pr2)
Particles enter during time interval Dt
Then
Particle fluence = F = DN / Da
Particle flux density = f = DF / Dt

Fluence and Flux Visuals
DN
Da
t Area through which particles
enter = Da
t Total Surface area a = 4pr2
t DN particles enter in time Dt
t Particle fluence F = DN/Da
t Flux Density = f = DF/Dt

Energy Fluence, Flux Density
t Let DEf = sum of energy (exclusive of rest

energy) of all particles entering sphere of
cross-sectional area Da
t Energy fluence: Y = DEf /Da
t Energy flux density: y = DY/Dt

Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
LET defined as dEL/dl, where dEL is the

energy locally imparted to the medium over
the length interval dl.
Dimensions: Energy / length; units: J/m
restricted range stopping power: dont look
for energy deposited far from path.

What does LET depend on?
t Nature of radiation
Alpha particles can be stopped by paper
Betas can be stopped by aluminum
Photons can get through almost anything
t Nature of medium (density, chemistry)
t Energy of radiation

LETs dependence on energy
t Dependence on energy manifests itself often in
subtle ways:
e.g. more absorption near absorption edges.

Charged Particle Equilibrium
CPE exists at a point p centered in a volume V

if each charged particle carrying a certain
energy out of V is replaced by another
identical charged particle carrying the same
energy into V. If CPE exists, then dose =
kerma.

Radioactivity Measurements
Let dP be the probability that a specific
nucleus will undergo decay during time dt.
Decay constant of a nuclide in a particular
energy state is l = dP/dt.
Half-time or half-life: time required for half
of starting particles to undergone transitions.
T1/2= (ln 2) / l
(not ln (2/ l), as the book claims)

Activity
Let dN = expectation value (most likely number) of
nuclear transitions in time dt.
Then activity A = dN/dt = -lN
(note that the minus sign is just keeping track of disappearance
rather than appearance)
If you dont understand that, you will fail the Health
Physics Comprehensive Exam!
Dimensions: time-1
Units: 1 becquerel = 1 disintegration /sec
Old unit: Curie: 3.71010 s-1

Electromagnetic Radiation
t Much of this course deals with the interaction
between electromagnetic radiation (usually
ionizing) and matter
t So we need to review the properties of
electromagnetic radiation
t EM radiation encompasses a wide range
of energy / wavelength / frequency
Ionizing radiation:
E = 1KeV - up, l = 0.81 nm -down
Visible light is lower-energy (E~1eV, l~500 nm)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Category Energy, eV Wavelength,nm Frequency, Hz
Radio 10-10 10-5 108 1011 2*104 2*109
Microwave 10-5 10-2 105 - 108 2*109 2*1012
Infrared 0.01-1.6 750-105 2*1012 4*1014
Visible 1.6-3 400-750 4*1014 7*1014

Ultraviolet 3-1000 1-400 7*1014 - 2*1017
X-rays 103-105 10-2 - 1 2*1017 - 2*1019
Gamma 105-109 10-6 - 10-2 2*1019 - 2*1023

or in graphical form

Laws of Electromagnetism
Charles-
Augustin de
The four major rules Coulomb
of electrodynamics:
Coulombs law
(F = kq1q2r-2)
Biot-Savart law
(dB = (0/4p)dlxr/r3)
Faradays law Jean-Baptiste Flix
(E = -FB/t) Biot Savart
Conservation of charge
Michael
Faraday

Maxwells contribution
These rules predated Maxwell. He James Clerk

showed they could be made self- Maxwell
consistent by recognizing that a
changing electric field induces a
magnetic field; thus the integral and
differential forms of Maxwells
equations.

What Maxwells laws mean
for radiation
t The electromagnetic field travels away from
its source with velocity = 3 * 108 m /sec.
t This turns out to be the velocity of light, so
evidently light is an electromagnetic wave!
t Relationship between frequency and
wavelength:
c = nl

Plancks contribution
Planck sought to understand radiation in a
cavity by assuming that the atoms in the
cavity were electromagnetic oscillators with
characteristic frequencies and the oscillators
would absorb and emit radiation
He also posited that the oscillators were
constrained to have energies
E = (n+)hn
where n = frequency, h = a constant

Einsteins photoelectric effect
t Energy of photons goes into
enabling the electrons to
escape from the surface, plus
their kinetic energy after they
do so:
Ephoton = hn = E0 + Kmax
t Here E0 is the work function,
Kmax is max electron energy

Special Relativity
t Einstein modified Galilean relativity, under which

velocities are additive.
t Galileo: automobile velocity with respect to ground
=u=v+w
t Einstein says: u < c so we need new rules!

Special Relativity:
Energy
Einsteins new rules require that
time & distance formulae depend on velocity Hendrick
Corrections are significant in nuclear reactions, Lorentz
radiation scattering, and accelerators, so we study
them here a little
They also give rise to the concept of relativistic
energy
E = mc / (1- v / c ), or
2 2 2
E = gmc , where g = 1 / (1 - v / c )
2 2 2

Rest energy and mass
If v = 0, E = E0 = m0c2; this is rest energy

if m0 is the rest mass, i.e. the mass as it is
ordinarily defined.
We can summarize the results by defining a
relativistic mass m so that we can say
E = mc2 = gm0c2 where m = gm0
For v = 0.1c, m = 1.05m0;
for v = 0.98c, m = 5m0.

Atomic Structure
t JJ Thomson (1897): heavy

nucleus with electrons
surrounding it.
t Rutherford showed that the
nucleus had to be very small
relative to the atomic size

The Bohr Model
t Bohr model: quantized

angular momentum so that
radiation is emitted in quanta
equal to difference between
energy levels of the atom.
Used classical energy
calculations!

Bohr model: radius
Quantized angular momentum mvr = nh/2p
But this is associated with coulombic attraction for
which the centripetal force must equal the coulombic
force:
F = mv2/r = kZe2/r2, so r = kZe2/mv2
Thus v = nh/(2pmr) = 2pkZe2/nh
so r = n2h2/(4p2kZe2m)
For n=Z=1,
r = h2/(4p2ke2m) = 0.529*10-10 m = Bohr radius

Bohr model: Electron Energies
t Velocity = v = 2pkZe2/(nh)
t Kinetic energy = 1/2mv2 = 2p2k2Z2e4m/(n2h2)
t Potential energy = -kZe2/r = -4p2k2Z2e4m/(n2h2)
t Total energy = KE + PE = -2p2k2Z2e4m/(n2h2)
t Photons emerge from transitions from one value of n
to another.
t Transition from n = 3 to n = 2 gives
photon energy = -2p2k2Z2e4m / [(1/9 - 1/4) h2]
= 1.89 eV

DeBroglie Wave Theory
So: weve allowed electromagnetic radiation to

behave as a wave and a particle. We can express
momentum of light as
P = E/c = hn/c = h/l
Can we also talk about matter behaving both as a
wave and a particle? Yes.
Particles can exhibit interference effects associated
with wave behavior.
Wavelength l = h/P = h / (mv)

Wave Behavior in electrons
Nonrelativistic approximation:
KE = (1/2)mv2 so l = h/(mv) = h(2(KE)m)-1/2
Further, since the angular momentum mvr is
quantized (mvr = nh/(2p)), we can say
2pr = nl
So we can say that the circumference of the
electrons orbit is an integer multiple of the
electrons wavelength! Standing waves!

Assignment associated with
this lecture:
Alpen, chapter 2, problem 1:
Assume an oscillating spring that has a spring
constant, k, of 20 Nm-1, a mass of 1 kg, and an
amplitude of 1 cm. If Plancks radiation formula
describes the behavior of this system, what is the
quantum number, n. What is DE if n changes by 1?
Recall from freshman physics that the frequency
of a simple oscillator is given by n = (1/2p)(k/m)1/2

Assignment, continued:
Alpen, ch.2, problem 4:

A proposed surface for a photoelectric light
detector has a work function of 2.0*10-19 J.
What is the minimum frequency of
radiation that it will detect? What will be
the maximum kinetic energy of electrons
ejected from the surface when it is
irradiated with light at 3550 (355 nm)?

t Alpen, chapter 2, problem 5:
In the previous problem, what is
the de Broglie wavelength of the
maximum kinetic energy electron
emitted from the surface? What is
its momentum?

(from my head):
The Advanced Photon Source (APS) at
Argonne National Laboratory produces
X-rays from electrons that have been
accelerated to an energy of
approximately 7 gigaelectron volts. This
corresponds to an electron velocity very
close to the speed of light. If the APS
electrons velocity is v, calculate c-v in
ms-1 to 2 significant figures.

Assignment, concluded:
t 5. Assume the electron described above is

traveling at constant speed around a circular
path with circumference 1.1 km. Compute
the acceleration a of the electron in m s-2
and as a multiple of the gravitational
acceleration g.

A suggestion
t Note that there are hints on how to answer

these questions within the old posts to the
course Discussion Board. I encourage you
to look for those. If you read a few other
posts along the way, everyone benefits!

Some nuclei decay
t Radioactivity is the process by which
unstable nuclei change state in order to
arrive at a lower-energy configuration
t We need to familiarize ourselves with
the processes by which this occurs and
how it gives rise to ionizing radiation
t We care about this in physics 561
because radioactivity is both a hazard
and a diagnostic and therapeutic tool

Radioactivity
t Nuclear Stability
t Mass Decrement
t Alpha Emission
t Negative Beta Emission
t Positive Beta Emission
t Electron Capture
t Spontaneous Fission

Four forces
t By ~1950: clear that all known physical
interactions could be characterized by 4 forces:
Force Strength Range Exchanged Quantum
particles theory
Gravity Weak Infinite Graviton Poor
Electro- Moderate Infinite Photon QED
magnetism
Weak Moderate Limited W+,W-,Z Electro-
nuclear weak
Strong Strong Limited Gluons QCD
nuclear
Radioactivity
Nucleus is subject to all four of these forces,
although gravity will be ignored here.
Strong nuclear force overcomes Coulombic
repulsion and enables nucleus to assemble.
Weak nuclear force is responsible for differences
between protons and neutrons and thereby
explains beta decays.
Stable nuclei are those for which the
combination of interactions produces a nucleus
that is already in a low-energy configuration and
therefore wont decay.

Stable and Unstable Elements
Every element has 1 unstable isotope, i.e. one that
undergoes radioactive decay
Most elements with Z < 92 have at least one stable isotope
Well examine radioactivity in terms of the transitions
under which a nucleus decays
Radioactivity has various influences on biological tissue:
Ionization of biological macromolecules
Indirect effects, often via free radicals
Medical applications: therapy, diagnostics, . . .

Region of stability and
nuclear decay
Z=N line
Z
+
-
b- decays: up & left. np+e-+n

b+ decays: down & right: pn+e++n
a2+: 2 units down & left: AZQ A-4Z-2R
g: no effect here: Q* Q
N

Rules
Stable nuclei of even Z more numerous than odd Z.
Stable nuclei of even N more numerous than odd N.
Stable nuclei of even A more numerous than odd A.
In general, stable nuclei of even A have even Z. Some
exceptions exist, such as 2H, 6Li, 10B, and 14N
Only two stable structures are known for which Z is greater than
N: 3He and 1H
Examining what happens to the N/Z ratio in a typical alpha
decay:
226Ra 222Rn + a + g + Q
Z = 88 86 (number of protons)
N = 138 136 (number of neutrons)
N/Z = 1.5682 1.5814

Mass Energy of a - Particle
Ignoring binding energy, 2 protons + 2 neutrons:
2moc2(neutron) 1978 MeV
2moc2(proton) 1976 MeV
--------------
Mass Energy = 3954 MeV
Kinetic Energy ~ 4 MeV
But, in fact, ignoring binding energy is a bad idea,
because it does affect the real mass energy, which
is about 28.27 MeV (0.7%) lower than that. Well
come back to that idea later in the lecture.

Beta Decays
Negative Electron Decay
A
X A Y + b - + n + Q
Positive Electron Decay
A
X A Y + b + + n + Q
( p n)
Spontaneous annihilation
b + + e- 2g
0.511MeV + 0.511 MeV = 1.022 MeV

Energy - Wavelength
Relationship for Photons
The general relation connecting wavelength
to energy is E = hc / l
Specifically, for energy in eV and
wavelength in : E = 12398.4 / l
For energy in MeV and wavelength in :
E = 0.0123984 / l
for either of the photons emitted in a
positron-electron annihilation:
E = 0.511 MeV so l = 0.0123984 / 0.511
= 0.02426 = 2.426 pm.
Charting Decay Schemes
We can sometimes find multiple pathways, each
with multiple steps, as with 74As here
(this is fig. 3.4, p. 37, in Alpen)

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12/18/2017 Intro; EM Radiation; Radioactivity p. 1 of 63

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You have also learned about the biological

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t I am primarily in the biology faculty within

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Live meetings: Tuesday and Thursday, 10 am-

t I will be attending a wedding in Oxford UK

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We will start every class except this one by going

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Its possible that youll see an inconsistency

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Early characterizers of the

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First medically observable deleterious effect

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The world of radiation research has gone through

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SI Unit C kg-1 Gray Joule

Unit J kg-1 kg m2s-2

Definition 1 esu cm-3 100 erg g-1 g cm2s-2

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t Louis H. Gray (1905-65)

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Let DN = # particles entering a sphere with

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t Let DEf = sum of energy (exclusive of rest

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LET defined as dEL/dl, where dEL is the

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CPE exists at a point p centered in a volume V

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Visible 1.6-3 400-750 4*1014 7*1014

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These rules predated Maxwell. He James Clerk

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t Einstein modified Galilean relativity, under which

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If v = 0, E = E0 = m0c2; this is rest energy

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t JJ Thomson (1897): heavy

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t Bohr model: quantized

Visible 1.6-3 400-750 41014 71014