Reason:

as a Way of Knowing

Richard van de Lagemaat,

Theory of Knowledge for the IB
Diploma (Cambridge: CUP,
2005)
 Key vocabulary
Premise -- claim or assumption that forms
the basis of an argument.
True -- refers to an objective fact or reality;
used to describe a premise or conclusion.
Valid -- describes an argument that is
logically coherent (i.e. the conclusion follows
from the premises)
Note: a valid argument is not necessarily true:
e.g. Apes are insects. Chimps are apes.
Therefore, chimps are insects.
Deductive Reasoning
Moves from the general to
the particular.
Usually relies on syllogism
(using two premises to
deduce a logical conclusion):
All dogs are mammals.
Buster is a dog.
Therefore, Buster is a
mammal.
Reliability requires true
premises & valid arguments.
Inductive Reasoning
Moves from the particular to
the general.
Uses repeated observations to
reach a general conclusion.
Good generalizations require:
number, variety, coherence
Seek out counter-examples; it
only takes 1 to disprove facts
determined by induction:
e.g. All birds can fly.
 Deduction vs. Induction
General particular Particular general
All birds can fly. Hawks can fly.
A penguin is a bird. Eagles can fly.
Penguins can fly. Pigeons can fly
Appears more certain, All birds can fly.
but premises are often Generally considered
based on induction. less certain, but more
Key concerns: informative.
false premises Key concern:
invalid syllogism hasty generalizations
Fallacies:
invalid patterns of reasoning
Ad hominem / appeal to
authority
literally against the man
Attacking or supporting an
argument based on the person
presenting it rather than the
argument itself.
e.g. Ms. Beck says So what?
Shes an idiot!
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
literally: after this, therefore
confusing correlation with causality.
e.g. Many teachers are smart
Teaching must make ppl smart.
 Ad bacculam / unpalatable consequences
Appeal to force or fear; suggesting
that unfavorable results implies faulty
reasoning
e.g. I couldnt have failed; my parents
will be furious if I fail another test
Ad misericordiam / special pleading
Appeal to pity; using emotion to justify
double standards/making exceptions
for special cases.
e.g. I know its wrong to cheat, but Ill
never get into college if I dont.
Loaded question/language
A question or statement with a built- in
assumption
e.g. Do you always cheat on exams?
The best students will agree that
 Invalid syllogism
Failure of logical reasoning
in an argument.
e.g. (see cartoon)
Equivocation
Using different definitions of
the same word (ambiguous
language)
e.g. A pound is better than
nothing. Nothing is better
than love. A pound is better
than love.
Ad ignorantiam
Claiming something is true
because there is no
evidence that it is not true.
e.g. Unicorns must exist,
because we cant prove that
they dont exist.
 Hasty generalizations
e.g. All birds can fly.
False dilemma
a.k.a. binary thinking
Presenting a complex
situation as if there were
only two options (a black or
white scenario).
e.g. Youre either with us or
against us.
False analogy
Presenting two different
ideas as similar.
e.g. Just as the rain wears
down the mightiest
mountain, hard problems
can be solved with patience
& persistence.
 Circular reasoning
Assuming the truth of
something you are supposed to
be proving.
e.g. Bobby gets all As, he
must be the smartest kid. How
do you know hes the smartest
kid? Because he gets all As.
Appeal to common practice
Implying that because
something is tradition or
popular, it must be correct.
e.g. Theres nothing wrong
with coming late to class;
everybody does it.; But weve
always done it this way...
Closing cartoon =)