2017 Highway Engineering

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
DR. MANUEL MUHI

CIEN 3173 Highway Engineering
Course Description
The course is designed to follow the process of
locating, designing, constructing and
maintaining roads and highways. It covers the
highway planning process and the principles of
route location. It introduces also the different
design parameters of roads/highways like
design speed, speed limits and the different
geometric parameters (HA/VA). This course
also covers the design of pavement and road
drainage
Course Outline
A. Introduction of the Course
B. Highway Planning Process and

Methods
C. Highway Classification
D. Transport Demand/Forecasting
E. Road/Highway Design Criteria &

Standards
F. Geometric Design (HA & VA)
g. Types/Design of Pavement
h. Design of Road Drainage
i. Road/Highway Maintenance
Grading System:
Quiz/Exam --------70%
Project -------- 20%
Seatwork, Course Notes, Assignment, Recitation
Attendance ------- 10%
--------------------------------------------------------
100%
Passing % = 70%
Passing Score (Exam/Quiz) = 70
Attendance/Late
3 Late = 1 absent
5 Absent = Dropped
Group Project: The group is required to design a road/highway
applying all the knowledge in surveying and highway engineering.
The road project will cover 20 to 30 km road ( 20 km for 4 members,
25-30 km for 5 members), passing through a flat, rolling and
mountainous terrain. The horizontal alignment and vertical
alignment shall be designed in accordance with the existing
AASHTO/DPWH Design Guide/Standards. The other components of
the project are as follows:
1. Transport analysis (traffic load analysis)
2. Drawings, details and specifications of the road/highway
3. Earthworks
4. Projected Estimate
5. 2 options and criteria of evaluation
6. Drainage Design
(Deadline of Submission: March __1st week__, 2018)
References:
Highway Engineering, Oglesby
Highway Engineering, Wright
Intro. To Transpo Engg, Banks
Pavement Design, Wang
Traffic & Highway Engg, Garber
Highway Design Manual
Concepts of Transportation
Engineering
 Transportation Engineering – a branch of civil
engineering that deals with the application of
technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the
safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods
Elements of Transpo
Engineering
 Highway & Traffic Engineering
 Pavement Engineering
 Railway Engineering
 Airport Engineering
 Water (Harbor Engineering)
Transportation
 Pipeline Transportation
Highway Engineering
 Branch of transportation engineering dealing with the
planning, location, design construction and
maintenance of highways and with the regulations
and control devices employed in highway traffic
operations
 Elements include: traffic loading, shape of road,

travelway, shoulders, sidewalks, pavement surfacing,
subgrade, pavement foundation, drainage and ditch
 Road transport is one of the most
common mode of transport. Roads in
the form of trackways, human pathways
 etc. were used even from the pre-
historic times. Since then many
experiments were going on to make the
riding safe and comfort. Thus road
construction became an inseparable part
of many civilizations and empires.
 History of highway engineering
 The history of highway enginnering
gives us an idea about the roads of
ancient times. Roads in Rome were
 constructed in a large scale and it
radiated in many directions helping them
in military operations. Thus they
 are considered to be pioneers in road
construction.
 Introduction to Highway Engineering
 2.1 Overview
 Road transport is one of the most
common mode of transport. Roads in
the form of trackways, human pathways
 etc. were used even from the pre-
historic times. Since then many
experiments were going on to make the
riding
 safe and comfort. Thus road
construction became an inseparable part
of many civilizations and empires. In
 this chapter we will see the different
 Ancient Roads
 The first mode of transport was by foot.
These human pathways would have been
developed for specific purposes leading to
camp sites, food, streams for drinking water
etc. The next major mode of transport was
the use of animals for transporting both men
and materials. Since these loaded animals
required more horizontal and vertical
clearances than the walking man, track ways
emerged.
 The invention of wheel in Mesopotamian
 civilization led to the development of animal
drawn vehicles. Then it became necessary
that the road surface should be capable of
carrying greater loads. Thus roads with
harder surfaces emerged. To provide
adequate strength to carry the wheels, the
new ways tended to follow the sunny drier
side of a path
 These have led to the development of foot-
paths. After the invention of wheel, animal
drawn vehicles were developed and the
 need for hard surface road emerged. Traces
of such hard roads were obtained from
various ancient civilization
 dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest
authentic record of road was found from
Assyrian empire constructed
 about 1900 BC
 Ancient Roads
 The first mode of transport was by foot. These
human pathways would have been developed for
specific
 purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for
drinking water etc. The next major mode of transport
was the
 use of animals for transporting both men and
materials. Since these loaded animals required more
horizontal
 and vertical clearances than the walking man, track
ways emerged. The invention of wheel in
Mesopotamian
 civilization led to the development of animal drawn
vehicles. Then it became necessary that the road
surface
 Roman roads
 The earliest large scale road
construction is attributed to Romans
who constructed an extensive system of
roads radiating in many directions from
Rome. They were a remarkable
achievement and provided travel times
across Europe, Asia minor, and north
Africa. Romans recognized that the
fundamentals of good road construction
 were to provide good drainage, good
material and good workmanship
 British roads
 The British government also gave importance to road
construction. The British engineer John Macadam
 introduced what can be considered as the first
scientific road construction method. Stone size was
an important
 element of Macadam recipe. By empirical observation
of many roads,he came to realize that 250 mm layers
 of well compacted broken angular stone would
provide the same strength and stiffness and a better
running
 surface than an expensive pavement founded on
large stone blocks. Thus he introduced an economical
method
 of road construction.
 British roads
 The British government also gave importance to road
construction. The British engineer John Macadam
 introduced what can be considered as the first
scientific road construction method. Stone size was
an important
 element of Macadam recipe. By empirical observation
of many roads,he came to realize that 250 mm layers
 of well compacted broken angular stone would
provide the same strength and stiffness and a better
running surface than an expensive pavement
founded on large stone blocks. Thus he introduced
an economical method of road construction..
 The mechanical interlock between the
individual stone pieces provided
strength and stiffness to the course.
 But the inter particle friction abraded
the sharp interlocking faces and partly
destroy the effectiveness of the
 course. This effect was overcome by
introducing good quality interstitial finer
material to produce a well-graded
 mix. Such mixes also proved less
permeable and easier to compact. A
 Modern roads
 The modern roads by and large follow Macadam’s
construction method. Use of bituminous concrete and
cement
 concrete are the most important developments.
Various advanced and cost-effective construction
technologies
 are used. Development of new equipments help in
the faster construction of roads. Many easily and
locally available materials are tested in the
laboratories and then implemented on roads for
making economical and
 durable pavements.
 Scope of transportation system has
developed very largely. Population of
the country is increasing day by
 day. The life style of people began to
change. The need for travel to various
places at faster speeds also increased.
 This increasing demand led to the
emergence of other modes of
transportation like railways and travel
by air.
Highway Types/Classification of
Roads (Political Classification)
 National Roads – form part of the main road
trunkline system administered by the DPWH
thru its regional and engg district offices,
right of way of not less than 20m allocation
for improvements
 Provincial Roads – connect one municipality
to another, roads within provincial
boundaries, ROW <15m.
 City Roads- it connects one
city/town/municipality-roads within the urban
area, ROW of at least 15m
 Municipal roads - roads within
town/municipalities, ROW of at
least 10m
 Barangay roads – rural roads,
ROW of at least 10m; roads
outside the Poblacion or
municipality, feeder or farm to
market roads
Classification of Traffic Road
 Expressway- traffic mobility function for high speed motor vehicles
from one activity center to another. Intersection is grade separated.
Roadside consists of a soil fill or cut section, traffic barriers and gutter
 Major road/boulevard/arterial- traffic mobility function for all types of
conveyor or vehicles. All intersection zones are at grade and controlled
 Collector/street/ordinary road- traffic mobility function for all types of
conveyors. Movement of all types of vehicles at the same speeds (30-
40 kph)
 Local road/ residential street- facilitation of access to/from private
property and some social activities. Provide direct access of safe
movement of vehicles at low speed (20-30 kph)
Modern Highway Location
Practice
 Reconnaissance – eliminate costly locations and limit the
choice to one or two general routes between controls
 Route Selection –is to flag the best location within the general
route, which will more or less permit the predetermined grade
controls
 Preliminary Survey –to obtain topography of the strip or strip
flagged which data will be utilized as the basic framework for
the projection of the line.
 Location survey – to transfer the paper projection determined
in the off, from the topographic strip map to the actual site in
the field
Practice
 Soil investigation
 Conduct subsurface investigations
 Sampling and testing (in situ and laboratory test)
 Drainage recommendation
 Surface drainage
 Subsurface drainage
 Design Controls
 Traffic volume
 Traffic character
 Design speed
ROAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Environmental Concerns
1. Potential impacts of road construction on the quality of physical and
human condition in the area.
2. Ensure less potential

negative impacts on
air quality, sound
quality, water quality
and land
characteristics.
3. Reduce undesirable changes in the physical and human

condition in area were the construction will take place
ROAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Cultural Concerns
1. Degradation of natural history (palaeotological
significance)
2. Cultural Sites
* archaeological sites
* burial (cemetery)
* religious significance
* ethnical domain
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Flow
* influential to vehicle to vehicle interactions
* congestion may result in increase in journey time
and accident risk
MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARD PHILIPPINE HIGHWAYS
DT AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFFIC ON UNDER 200 200 - 400 400 - 1000 1000 - 2000 MORE THAN 2000
OPENING MINIMUM DESIRABLE MINIMUM DESIRABLE MINIMUM DESIRABLE
DEISGN SPEED ( km / h )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 60 70 70 90 80 95 90 100
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY 40 50 60 80 60 80 70 90
MOUNTAINOUS TOPOGRAPHY 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70
RADUIS ( meter )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 120 160 160 280 220 320 260 350
GRADE ( percent )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 6 6 5 3 4 3 4 3
PAVEMENT WIDTH ( m) 4 5.5; 6.0 6.1 6.7 6.7 7.3
SHOULDER WIDTH ( m) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3
RIGHT OF WAY WIDTH ( m) 20 30 30 30 30 60
SUPERELEVATION ( m/m ) 0.10 (max.) 0.10 ( MAX. ) 0.10 ( MAX.) 0.01 (MAX.)
NON PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ( meter)
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 70 90 90 135 115 150 135 160
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ( meter)
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 420 490 490 615 560 645 615 675
Gravel, crushed gravel or Bituminous Macadm Bituminous Concrete Bituminous Concrete Surface
crushed stone bituminous Pavemet, Dense or open Surface course Course, Portland Cement
TYPE OF SURFACING preservative treatment graded plant mix surface Concrete Pavement
single or double bituminous course, bituminous concrete
surface treatment, surface course
bituminous macadam
pavement
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Information
* use for structural design purposes
* basis for traffic demand forecasting
* traffic volume estimation
Traffic loading information may be obtained from

the following sources:
* Tabulated average 80 Kn equivalent Single Axle Load per Lane
* Traffic survey (visual or traffic counting)
* Transportation planning models (trip generation models)
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Class Cumulative Equivalent Traffic Description
(E80/lane)
1 (Feeder Roads) <0.20 x 106 Very light trafficked, very few
heavy vehicles
2 (Collector Roads) 0.2 – 0.8 x 106 Lightly trafficked roads, light
delivery and agricultural vehicles,
very few heavy vehicles
3 (Major Collector Roads) 0.8 - 3 x 106 Medium volume of traffic; few
heavy vehicles
4 (Highway) 3 - 12 x 106 High volume of traffic and/or
many heavy vehicles
5 (Expressway) 12 - 50 x 106 Very high volume of traffic
and/or high proportion of fully
laden heavy vehicles
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic forecasting
* forecasting of average daily traffic can be projected using a growth
factor (urban area is 20% and rural area 5%)
Formula for traffic forecasting :
Pn = Pi (1 + r )n
where: Pn =projected number of traffic
Pi = initial average daily traffic
r = growth rate
n = number of projected years
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Forecasting/Traffic Design
Data
Geometric Design Pavement Design
• number of lanes • type of pavement

• width of lanes • thickness of subgrade, subbase,
• design speed base courses
• thickness of pavement
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Safety
* optimizing by linking geometric elements to design speed
* design standards must take into account the environmental road
conditions, traffic characteristics and drivers behavior
* potential collision risk
Design Speed
* design varies with different terrain
* provide appropriate consistency between geometric elements
* mountainous and rolling areas speed limits as low as 40 kph
* review of design speed to ensure that they relate to current circumstances
Highway Geometric
Design Process
Specify design standards Survey Major Site Characteristics
•Topography
•Local/national standards
•Ground soil conditions
•Functional classification •Hydrologic condition
•Design speed, cross •Environmental conditions/impacts
sectional features, •Habitat
superelevation
•Existing zoned land use
•Functional classification
Specify Major Design Controls

•Design vehicle
• design speed
• volume/capacity/LOS/Access
•Horizontal controls (radius, superelevation)
• Vertical controls (grades, intersections, utilities)
• cross section controls and elements
•Earthwork control (excavation, embankments, etc)
Modifications?
Selection of routes
•Identify alternate routes
• sketch horizontal and vertical alignments
•Screen routes and select those for preliminary design
Modifications?
Conduct (preliminary)
design
•Horizontal alignment
• vertical alignment
• cross sections
• drainage features
• earthworks
• environmental impacts
Evaluate Design
•Cost (project cost, user cost)
Detailed Design
GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES,
PARAMETERS AND STANDARDS
Geometric Design features Design Design
element parameters standards
a) Cross section Traffic way,carriage No of carriageways Minimum width or
way, median,  no of lanes per lane
shoulders, parking carriageway  maximum and
lane, roadside Width and cross minimum cross
slope slope
Characteristics of
median
Characteristics of
shoulders/parking
lanes
b) Horizontal Horizontal curve and Number of curves Minimum radius
alignment horizontal tangent Characteristics of and length of
curves circular curve
Length of curve  minimum
Available sight
clearance
distance Minimum length of
transition curve
GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES,
PARAMETERS AND STANDARDS
Geometric Design features Design Design
element parameters standards
c) Vertical  vertical curve  types, location and  min and max
alignment  vertical tangent length of curve length of vertical
Length and grade curve
of tangent  max grade of
Available sight vertical alignment

distance
d) Intersection Intersection approach  number, length ad
zone diagram zone width of lanes on
Intersection area approach zone
 type of
intersection area
e) Superelevation Superlevation rate, Superelevation rate Maximum rate of
diagram Superelevation runoff  superelevation superelevation
Tangent runoff runoff length
 tangent runoff
length
Geometric Design
 Geometric Design for transportation
facilities includes the design of
geometric cross section, horizontal
alignment, vertical alignment,
intersections, and various design
details.
goals of geometric design
 maximize the comfort
 safety,
 economy of facilities
 while maximizing their environmental
impacts
FUNDAMENTALS OF
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 geometric cross section
 vertical alignment
 horizontal alignment
 super elevation
 intersections
 various design details.
GEOMETRIC CROSS
SECTION
 The primary consideration in the design of cross sections is
drainage.
 Highway cross sections consist of traveled way, shoulders (or
parking lanes), and drainage channels.
 Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature.
 Shoulders provide:
 accommodation of stopped vehicles
 emergency use,
 and lateral support of the pavement.
 Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved.

 Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed
swales) or of paved shoulders with berms of curbs and gutters.
Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.
Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.
Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.

Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.
Divided highway cross section, raised median, curbed.
Geometric cross section cont..
 Standard lane widths are normally 3.6 m (12
ft), although narrower lanes are common on
older roadways, and may still be provided in
cases where the standard lane width is not
economical. Shoulders or parking lanes for
heavily traveled roads are normally 2.4 to 3.6
m (8 to 12 ft) in width; narrower shoulders
are sometimes used on lightly traveled road.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The vertical alignment of a transportation
facility consists of
 tangent grades (straight line in the
vertical plane)
 vertical curves. Vertical alignment is
documented by the profile.

TANGENT GRADES
Tangent grades are designated according to their
slopes or grades.
Maximum grades vary depending on the type of
facility, and usually do not constitute an absolute
standard.
The effect of a steep grade is to slow down the
heavier vehicles (which typically have the lowest
power/weight ratios) and increase operating costs.
Vertical Curves
 Vertical tangents with different grades
are joined by vertical curves.
Symmetrical Vertical Curve

VERTICAL CURVES CONT…
Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered about the
point of intersection (P.I.) of the vertical tangents they join.
Vertical curves are thus of the form
where y = elevation of a point on the curve

yo = elevation of the beginning of the vertical curve (BVC)
g1 = grade just prior to the curve
x = horizontal distance from the BVC to the point on the curve
r = rate of change of grade
The rate of change of grade, in turn, is given by
where g2 is the grade just beyond the end of the vertical

curve (EVC) and L is the length of the curve.
Vertical curves are classified as sags where g2 > g1 and

crests otherwise. Not that r (and hence the term rx2 /2)
will be positive for sags and negative for crests.
If grades are in percent, horizontal distance must be in

stations
If grades are dimensionless ratios, horizontal distances
must be in meters.
The grade of any point in the vertical curve is a linear
function of the distance from the BVC to the point. That is,
PROBLEM
 A –2.5% grade is connected to a +1.0% grade by
means of a 180-m vertical curve. The P.I. station is
100 + 00 and the P.I elevation is 100.0 m above
sea level. What are the station and elevation of the
lowest point on the vertical curve?
Design standards for vertical curves establish their minimum
lengths for specific circumstances
 based on sight distance,
 on comfort standards involving vertical acceleration,
 or appearance criteria.
 In most cases, sight distance or appearance standards will

govern for highways.
 the equations used to calculate minimum lengths of vertical
curves based on sight distance depend on whether the sight
distance is greater than or less than the vertical curve length.
Stopping sight distance diagram for crest vertical curve.
CREST VERTICAL CURVES
 For crest vertical curves, the minimum
length depends on the sight distance,
the height of the driver’s eye, and the
height of the object to be seen over the
crest of the curve.
CREST VERTICAL CURVES
When S≤L
When S≥L
where S = sight distance (from Table)

L = vertical curve length
A = absolute value of the algebraic difference in grades, in percent, |g1-g2|
h1 = height of eye
h2 = height of object
 For stopping sight distance, the height
of object is normally taken to be
150mm. for passing sight distance, the
height of object used by AASHTO is
1300 mm. Height of eye is assumed to
be 1070 mm.
SAG VERTICAL CURVES
 For sag vertical curves, stopping sight
distance is based on the distance illuminated
by the headlights at night.
 Design standards are based on an assumed
headlight height of 600 mm and an upward
divergence of the headlight beam of 1°.
 As in the case of crest vertical curves, the
formulas for minimum length of vertical curve
depend on whether the length of the curve is
greater or less than the sight distance.
Stopping sight distance diagram for sag vertical curve.
SAG VERTICAL CURVES
 For sag vertical curves, the formula is
 Design charts of tables are used to
determine minimum length of vertical
curve to provide stopping sight distance
for both crest and sag vertical curves,
and passing sight distance on crests.
These may be found in the AASHTO
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets.
Vertical CURVE limited to
provide clearances
 Finally, vertical curve lengths may be
limited by the need to provide
clearances over or under objects such
as overpasses or drainage structures.
 VERTICAL CURVES PASSING OVER
OBJECTS(e.g. Overpass)
 SAG CURVE – Minimum Lengths
 CREST CURVE – Maximum Lengths
 VERTICAL CURVES PASSING UNDER
OBJECTS(e.g. Drainage
 SAG CURVE – Maximum Lengths
 CREST CURVE – Minimum Lengths
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 Horizontal alignment for linear
transportation facilities such as
highways and railways consists of
horizontal tangents, circular curves, and
possibly transition curves. In the case
of highways, transition curves are not
always used.
Horizontal alignments with and without
transition curves.
HORIZONTAL TANGENTS
 Horizontal tangents are described in terms’ of
their lengths (as expressed in the stationing
of the job) and their directions. Directions
may be either expressed as bearings or as
azimuths and are always defined in the
direction of increasing station. Azimuths are
expressed as angles turned clockwise from
due north; bearings are expressed as angles
turned either clockwise or counterclockwise
from either north or south.
CIRCULAR CURVES
 Horizontal curves are normally circular.
Figure in the next slide illustrates
several of their important features.
Horizontal curves are also described by
radius, central angle (which is EQUAL to
the deflection angle between the
tangents), length, semitangent
distance, middle ordinate, external
distance, and chord. The curve begins
at the tangent-to-curve point (TC) and
ELEMENTS OF A HORIZONTAL
CURVE
 Design standards for horizontal curves establish their
minimum radii and, in some cases, their minimum
lengths. Minimum radius of horizontal curve is most
commonly established by the relationship between
design speed, maximum rate of superelevation, and
curve radius. In other cases, minimum radii or curve
lengths for highways may be established by the need
to provide stopping sight distance or by appearance
standards.
Transition Curves
 Transition curves are used to connect
tangents to circular curves.
 tangent to spiral point (TS),
 spiral to curve point (SC),
 curve to spiral point (CS),
 spiral to tangent point (ST).
SUPERELEVATION
 The purpose of superelevation or
banking of curves is to counteract the
centripetal acceleration produced as a
vehicle rounds a curve. The term itself
comes from railroad practice, where the
top of the rail is the profile grade.

 A commonly used mixed-unit version of the

equation is:
where V is in km/h and R is in meters. Alternatively,

Example
 Compute the minimum radius of a
circular curve for a highway designed
for 110 km/h. The maximum
superelevation rate is 12%. Value of
f(from AASHTO table) is 0.11.
INTERSECTIONS & INTERCHANGES
 Geometric Design of transportation facilities must
provide for the resolution of traffic conflicts.
 In general, these conflicts may be classified as: Merging
 Merging conflicts
 Occurs when vehicles enter a traffic stream
 Diverging conflicts Diverging
 Occurs when vehicles leave the traffic stream
 Weaving conflicts
 Occurs by merging then diverging
 Crossing conflicts Weaving
 Occurs when they cross paths directly
Crossing
Three Basic Ways of Resolving Crossing
Conflicts
 Time-sharing Solutions
 Space-sharing Solutions
 Grade separation Solutions

At-grade intersections
 Except for freeways, all highways have
intersections at grade, so that the
intersection area is a part of every
connecting road or street.
 In this area, crossing and turning
movements occur.
 Some intersection are channelized – to
minimize traffic accidents, speed
control, prevention of prohibited turns,
General types of at-grade
Intersections
Unchannelized T
Unchannelized Y
Flared T
3-leg
intersections
Y with turning roadways
Unchannelized
Channelized
INTERCHANGES
 Are classified according to the way they
handle left-turning traffic.
INTERCHANGE CONFIGURATION
- are selected on the basis of structural
cost, right-of-way costs, and ability to
serve traffic.
DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE
Partial cloverleaf
TRumpet
FULL DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL-Y
ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)
ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)
OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)
OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)

General Classes of Freeway
Interchanges
 Diamond Interchange
 Employ diamond ramps
which connect to the
cross road by means of
an at grade intersection.
 Left turns are
accomplished by having
vehicles turn left across
traffic on the cross road.
 Cloverleaf Interchange
 Employ loop ramps, in
which vehicles turn left
by turning 270 degrees
to the right.
 Partial Cloverleaf Interchange (Parclo)
 Involves various combinations of diamond and loop ramps.
 Trumpet Interchange
ASSESSMENT OF ADEQUACY
OF DESIGN
 Assessment of reasonableness of the assumption of data
 Appropriateness of assumed data and calculations made
 Reliability of data
 Assessment of adequacy of the design elements

 Cross section assessment
 Availability of sight distances
 Assessment of reasonableness of the assumption of data

 Appropriateness of assumed data and calculations made
 Reliability of data
ASSESSMENT OF ADEQUACY
OF DESIGN
 Assessment of adequacy of design consistency

 Drivers operational safety
REQUIREMENTS FOR SPEEDY
PLAN PREPARATION
 Plans
 Show the centerline of the project road, the width and shoulders
and the right of way
 the azimuth, distance, elements of curve, coordinates,
superelevation and wideing of every curve and design speed
 Contours shall be plotted at 1.0m intervals, if contour lines are
too close together, an interval of 5 m may be used
 Elevation of bench marks with accurate descriptions, reference
points and controlling points with azimuth and distance shall be
shown
PLAN PREPARATION
 Profile
 Elements of every vertical parabolic curve
 Finished grade and existing elevations for every full station
 Longitudinal profile of existing ground and finished grade lines shall be
plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontal and for vertical, 1:100m
 Cross Section
 Width of grading and surfacing of the proposed road

 General manner of treating slopes in cut and fill
 Manner of superelevating and widening in curves
PLAN PREPARATION
 Geotechnical Drawings
 Geotechnical data in these drawings shall include the complete

soil survey data for the project, the approved sources of borrow,
aggregate, subbase, aggregate concrete aggregates and asphalt
aggregate
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
Concepts of Transportation
Engineering
 Transportation Engineering – a branch of civil
engineering that deals with the application of
technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the
safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods
Elements of Transportation
Engineering
 Highway & Traffic Engineering
 Pavement Engineering
 Railway Engineering
 Airport Engineering
 Water (Harbor Engineering)
Transportation
 Pipeline Transportation
Highway Engineering
 Branch of transportation engineering dealing with the
planning, location, design construction and
maintenance of highways and with the regulations
and control devices employed in highway traffic
operations
 Elements include: traffic loading, shape of road,

travelway, shoulders, sidewalks, pavement surfacing,
subgrade, pavement foundation, drainage and ditch
Highway Types/Classification of
Roads (Political Classification)
 National Roads – form part of the main road
trunkline system administered by the DPWH
thru its regional and engg district offices,
right of way of not less than 20m allocation
for improvements
 Provincial Roads – connect one municipality
to another, roads within provincial
boundaries, ROW <15m.
 City Roads- it connects one
city/town/municipality-roads within the urban
area, ROW of at least 15m
Practice
 Reconnaissance – eliminate costly locations and limit the
choice to one or two general routes between controls
 Route Selection –is to flag the best location within the general
route, which will more or less permit the predetermined grade
controls
 Preliminary Survey –to obtain topography of the strip or strip

flagged which data will be utilized as the basic framework for
the projection of the line
 Location survey – to transfer the paper projection determined

in the off, from the topographic strip map to the actual site in
the field
 Municipal roads - roads within
town/municipalities, ROW of at least
10m
 Barangay roads – rural roads, ROW of at
least 10m; roads outside the Poblacion
or municipality, feeder or farm to
market roads
MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARD PHILIPPINE HIGHWAYS
DT AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFFIC ON UNDER 200 200 - 400 400 - 1000 1000 - 2000 MORE THAN 2000
OPENING MINIMUM DESIRABLE MINIMUM DESIRABLE MINIMUM DESIRABLE
DEISGN SPEED ( km / h )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 60 70 70 90 80 95 90 100
RADUIS ( meter )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 120 160 160 280 220 320 260 350
GRADE ( percent )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 6 6 5 3 4 3 4 3
PAVEMENT WIDTH ( m) 4 5.5; 6.0 6.1 6.7 6.7 7.3
SHOULDER WIDTH ( m) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3
RIGHT OF WAY WIDTH ( m) 20 30 30 30 30 60
SUPERELEVATION ( m/m ) 0.10 (max.) 0.10 ( MAX. ) 0.10 ( MAX.) 0.01 (MAX.)
NON PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ( meter)
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 70 90 90 135 115 150 135 160
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ( meter)
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY 420 490 490 615 560 645 615 675
Gravel, crushed gravel or Bituminous Macadm Bituminous Concrete Bituminous Concrete Surface
crushed stone bituminous Pavemet, Dense or open Surface course Course, Portland Cement
TYPE OF SURFACING preservative treatment graded plant mix surface Concrete Pavement
single or double bituminous course, bituminous concrete
surface treatment, surface course
bituminous macadam
pavement
DESIGN OF
HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Combination of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment
Route Determination of Determination of

Location Horizontal Vertical Alignment
Alignment
Combination of
Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Combination of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment

•The combination of horizontal
and vertical alignment is the final
check of design and belongs to
one of the most difficult
procedure in geometric design
• Harmony of geometric
alignment
• Design should satisfy safety

running, visual and
psychological comfortableness.
• Economical and less negative

impact in environment
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Good design Bad design
Plan Plan
Profile Profile
Comment: A very satisfactory appearance Comment: This combination is
results when vertical and horizontal curves dangerous as the reverse curvature of
coincide. Keep vertical curve within the alignment is obscured from the
horizontal curve
driver’s view by the crest.
Plan Plan Road Intersection
Profile Profile
Comment: Ideal coordination between HA & Comment: The summit vertical curve restricts
VA, vertices of curves coinciding, creating a the driver’s view of the level crossing (or road
rich combination intersection, start of a horizontal curve or
other hazard) and produces a dangerous
situation
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT
DESIGN
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
Good design Bad design
Plan Plan
Obstruction
Bridge
Profile
Profile
Comment: This situation always look
Comment: This is the most effective bad. It is much better to begin the
way to display a bridge. Bridge is visible detour before the driver is aware of the
to the driver. reason for it.
General Idea of Design:
 HA & VA should be
superimposed; keep vertical
curve within horizontal curve.
 Keep the balance of VA & HA
RH(m) RVm=100[LVC/g2-g1),%] RHm RVm=100[LVC/g2-g1)%]
500 10000 1000 10000

700 12000 1100 30000
800 16000 1200 40000
900 20000
Highway Curves
 Highway and railroad routes are chosen

only after a complete and detailed study
of all possible location
 Route selection usually involves the use of air
photos and ground surveys and the analysis of
existing plans and maps
 Route selected is chosen because it satisfies all
design requirements with minimal social,
environmental and financial impact
Technique for Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment
 Design of horizontal and vertical alignment of a
road consists of two major tasks
 Obtaining the values of design controls for horizontal
curves and tangents (requires the use of the
parameters of the quality of design)
 Involves the determination of the location type and
characteristics of horizontal curves
Estimation of Control Values of
Horizontal Alignment
Parameters
 Estimation of control values of horizontal alignment
parameters involves the estimation of the
threshold values of circular and transition curves
and horizontal tangents
 a) Danger of Skidding exist when:
V2 > e + fs, the value should not exceed 0.22
127 R
where: e = superelevation
V = speed (Kph)
fs = coefficient of side friction
R = radius of the curve (m)
Horizontal Alignment Parameters
 b) Danger of Overturning
1) At low speeds, there is a likelihood of off-
tracking while at high speeds drivers generally
experience difficulty in steering their vehicles
and thus take the outer side of the beginning of
the curve
2) To reduce the effects of these, some extra
width of pavement often provided on curves
 Danger of Overturning
 The major requirements are to determine the
following:
 Minimum radius and length of curve
 Maximum rate of superelevation
 Minimum amount of widening
 Danger of Overturning
X
V2 > x + ye
y 127 R y – xe
Where: y & x = coordinates of

the center of gravity of the
e design vehicle (Y=1.5 and x =
1.2 m_
 Minimum Radius and Length of Curve

 The appropriate radius of a circular curves can
be considered to be one that prevent
overturning of heavy vehicles, ensures safety of
each vehicle and its occupants and satisfies the
sight distance requirement
Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd)

Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd)
Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular curve
Rsr=radius which satisfies the skidding prevention
V2
Rsr = ------------------------
127 (emax + fsmax)
emax=maximum value of supreelevation (rural areas = 0.08 and urban areas =0.04 tp
0.06
AASHTO Values of Side Friction

Design 48 64 80 96 104 112 120 128
Speed
(kph)
Side 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11
Friction
 Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd)
 Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular

curve
 Rsr=radius which satisfies the skidding prevention
V2
 Rsr = --------------------
127 (emax +fsmax)
fsmax = 0.37 {0.0000214 *Vd2 - 0.0064Vd + 0.77}


curve
 Rso=radius which satisfies overturning of the trucks
on the curve
V2 [y –xe]
Rso = ----------------------
127 [x +ye]

curve
 Rsd=radius which satisfies sight distance
requirements
(SD)2
Rsd =--------------- SD = sight distance
8m m =distance from
curve obstruction
Minimum Desirable Rate of
Superelevation
 Rsd
Line of sight obstruction sight distance

curve
 Rsr=radius which satisfies the skidding prevention
 Rso=radius which satisfies overturning of the trucks
on the curve
 Rsd=radius which satisfies sight distance
requirements
Superelevation
 Banking or superlevation is necessary to
counteract the centrifugal force that is acting on
the vehicle
 The value of maximum superelevation, e, may

range from 6% to 12% depending on the
terrain of the area where the highway will
traverse
Superlevation
CL
Minimum Desirable Rate of
Superelevation
 To ensure that a vehicle is traveling at the 99th
percentile speed on a curve if minimum radius will
experience an acceptable lateral acceleration
edmax = Min[emax; V2/282 Rdmin]
edmax=max desirable value of

superelevation rate
Minimum Desirable Amount of
Extra Widening on Circular Curve
 Extra widening is often needed on curve
because:
1) vehicles occupy a greater width on
curves because their rear wheels generally
track inside front wheels in rounding a
curve,
2) drivers generally experience difficulties
in steering their vehicle in the center of a
lane
Extra Widening requirement
0.5nl2 0.105V
Wdmin=------------ + ----------
Rdmin (Rdmin)0.5
Extra widening Wdmin=desirable min amount of

widening
n= number of lanes
l =length of wheel base of the
design vehicles (m)
Rdmin =min desirable redius of
curve
Widening on Road Curves
Standard Widening of Curves
Radius Design Speed

(m) (kph)
40 50 60 70 80 100 120
50 1.75
80 1.50 1.50
100 1.25 1.25
125 1.0 1.25 1.25
150 1.0 1.25 1.25
180 1.0 1.25 1.25 1.25
200 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.0
250 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.25
300 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.0
400 0.50 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0
500 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0
600 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0
800 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 1.0
1000 0.50 0.75 0.75 0.75
1200 0.50 0.75 0.75
1500 0.50 0.75
Transition Curve
 A transition curve is sometimes needed to improve the
driver’s operation and comfort and make steering easier
and more accurate for a vehicle
 This is necessary because the centrifugal force which acts
on a vehicle as it enters a circular curve may result in a
lateral jerk (rate of change of centrifugal acceleration)
which can cause a discomfort to the driver and passengers
of the vehicle
 It is used to produce a smoother appearing transition that
is more accurate to the character of the alignment
Transition Curve
 The most commonly used type of transition curve
is a spiral curve (clothoid) which is used to
enable a gradual introduction of the centrifugal
force (or slower rate of change of lateral
acceleration)
 It shall be designed between circular curves or
between straight alignment and circle when
radius of curvature is 750m or degree of curve >
1 to satisfy different condition of optic condition
and dynamic condition
 Optic Condition- the change in direction
(deflection) shall be > 3degrees expressed as
A = R/3 or Ls = R/9
The offset of the circular curve due to the transition curve

shall be > 0.50 m to present a satisfactory aspect in
perspective, expressed as:
Ls = 12R
Limit between these two conditions is R = 972m ; Ls =

108m
 Dynamic Condition
Ls > V [e +e’] where e’ =NC (normal crown), %
Superelevation Runoff Condition: Ls > SR (superelevation

runoff)
Adopt Ls > the length of corresponding to the most

constraining condition
Minimum Desirable Length of
Spiral Curve (Ls)
 A) Rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration must be
constant and smaller than an established limit
V3 Ls= length of spiral curve
Ls =------------ V = speed, kph
RC c = rate of increase of centrifugal

acceleration. Its value varies between
1&3
Minimum Desirable Length of
Spiral Curve (Ls)
 Criterion 1: Rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration and superelevation is incorporated (Lsc)
Lsc = 0.022 Vd {[Vd2/Rdmin] – 127 edmax}
 Criterion 2: Length must be consider to enable the introduction of the designed superelevation
Lss = edmax * 0.5 [W + We] /RS (if pavement is rotated about the
center)
Lss = edmax * [W + We] /RS (if pavement is rotated about the

inner edge)
 Where: Lsc, Lss = length of transition curve to fulfill rate of change of lateral acceleration and to fulfill
the rate of introduction of the designed superelevation requirements respectively
 RS allowable relative slope (0.2% for 1 lane, 0.5% for 2 lanes, 1% for 3 lanes and 2% for 4 lanes)
 edmax = maximum desirable rate of superelevation
 W and We = normal pavement width and the extra widening at the circular curve, respectively
Lsdmin = MAX (Lsc, Lss) Lsdmin =minimum desirable length of transition spiral
Selection of a type of
horizontal curve
 Is a transition curve needed?
 Does a simple curve fit the site condition?
 If not, what is the most appropriate
compound curve that fits the site conditions?
horizontal curve
 To answer the questions, a designer needs to know
the threshold values of circular and transition
curves
Step 1: Compare Rdmin with Vd3/432: if Rdmin is less,
then transition spirals are required, otherwise, only
a circular curve is required.
Step 2: Compare the value of angle of transition curve
with the total deviation angle (angle between the
two intersecting straights). If the angle of transition
is equal to half of deviation angle, then transition
curves can be used throughout. Otherwise, a
combination of circular and transition curve is
required
horizontal curve
 To answer the questions, a designer needs to know
the threshold values of circular and transition
curves
Step 3: Check whether the curve obtained through
steps 1 and 2 is compatible with the site
conditions. If yes, use the curve. If not, select a
suitable compound curve. Two criteria must be
satisfied.
1) minimum radius of the compound curve must not be
less than the minimum desirable radius
2) adequacy of the curve selected must be checked
using this figure:
horizontal curve
 After selecting the appropriate type of horizontal
curve, TL12, the length of hor tangent between
two curves must be check to ensure that it is
greater than the critical length of tangent which
is given as
 CTL = MAX [{10R10.5}; 2Vd]
CTL = critical tangent length and R1 is the radius of the larger
curves (consider the max radius)
If TL12 is less than CTL, a compound curve must be used to
replace the curves 1 and 2
Sample Problem
 The design speed of a highway is 80 kph. However, due to
economic and other reasons, a horizontal curve of radius of
200m is on the highway. Can this speed be safely maintained
on the road? If not, what should be done?
Solution:
Step 1) Estimate the actual value of superelevation on
the horizontal curve. Assuming that emax =0.07.
Using the eqn of
edmax = MIN [0.07; (80)2/282*200]
e = 0.113
edmax = 0.07 (not safe)
Solution:
Step 2) Compare the friction demand and maximum available friction
Based from the friction demand (fd)= [(80)2 / 127 * 200] – 0.07 = 0.18
fsmax =0.37{0.0000214 * Vd2 – 0.0064 Vd + 0.77}
= 0.37{0.000214 * (80)2 – 0.0064 (80) + 0.77}
= 0.146
Since fd > fsmax; 80 kph is not safe speed on the curve
The maximum desirable speed is given as {127*200 (0.07 + 0.146)}2 = 74 kph
Thus, the speed on the curve should be restricted to 74 kph through use of signs
and markings
Sample 2
 A truck with a center of gravity at x=1.2m and y=1.5m is
expected to travel on a circular curve. The design speed on the
curve is 80 kph and the minimum desirable sight distance is
150m. In addition, the expected distance of the obstruction
from the road center line is 10m. Determine the minimum
desirable values of the curve parameters.
 Solution
 Step 1) Checking of skidding condition
(80)2/127Rsr = e + fsmax
since it is generally recommended that emax + fsmax
should not be greater than 0.22.
(6400)/127Rsr = 0.22
Rsr = 230 m
Step 2) Check condition of stability
against overturning
V2/127Rso = [x+ye]/[y-xe]
X V=80
e=emax: 6400/127Rso = [x+ye]/[y-xe]
y = [1.2+(1.5*0.07)]/[1.5-(1.2*0.07)]
= 0.92
Thus, Rso =6400/(127*0.92)
e Rso =55m
V2 > x + ye
127 R y – xe
Step 3: Check Sight Distance condition
Rsd = (SD)2/8m
Rsd = (150)2 / (8*10)= 280m
Step 4: Estimate the minimum desirable value of radius

Considering all the conditions:
Rdmin = MAX [280, 230, 55]
Therefore, Rdmin = 280m
Step 5: Estimate the minimum desirable
maximum rate of superelevation
 Assume emax = 0.07
edmax =MIN [0.07; V2/282*Rdmin]

edmax = MIN [ 0.07; (80)2 /282 (280)]
= MIN [0.07; 0.081]
edmax = 0.07
Checking adequacy of results: V2 > x + ye
There will be no problem of overturning if 127 R y – xe
That is [6400/127*280] =0.18
This is less than [1.2+(1.5*0.07)/[1.5-(1.2*0.07)] = 0.92
Therefore the combination of R=280 and e=0.07 is OK!
Technique for Design of
Vertical Alignment
The vertical alignment of a road consist of tangent grades
connected with parabolic vertical curves (Crest or sag
curves).Vertical alignment is the profile view of the
centerline of the road consisting of tangent grades
connected by vertical curves
Vertical Curves
 Vertical Curves can be circular or parabolic
curves. Parabolic curves are preferred by
many agencies because they provide a
constant rate of curvature
 Maximum and Minimum Length of a
Symmetrical Crest Vertical Curve
 Maximum and Minimum Length of Symmetrical
Sag Vertical Curve
Gradient or Grade
 Gradient is the rate of rise and fall on any length
of road with respect to the horizontal.
 The gradient and length of tangent depend

generally on the terrain and the design speed.
 In general, maximum grade is considered to be

10-12% for a length of tangent of 150m.
Control Grades for Design
Level Rolling Mountainous
Freeway/Xpressw 3-4% 4-5% 5-6%

ay
Rural Arterials 3-5% 4-6% 5-8%
Urban Arterials 5-8% 6-9% 8-11%
Collector/Second 4-7% 5-10% (rural) 6-12% (rural)

ary (rural) 6-12% 7-14% (urban)
5-9% (urban)
(urban)
Local or Minor 5-8% 6-11% 10-16%
Street
Min and Max Length of a
Symmetrical Crest Curve
Vcldmin = Max {Lsd;Lc;La}
Vcldmin=min desirable length of crest vertical curve

Lsd=length of curve to satisfy the sight distance
requirement
Lc=length of curve to satisfy the comfort requirement
La=length of curve to satisfy appearance requirement
Symmetrical Crest Curve
SD2A where: A=algebraic difference in grades

Lsd =-------------------------- A=G1-G2
(a+b+2c0.5+b0.5)200 a=eye height above the road
surface
b=object height above the
road surface
Lc =[V2A]/389 Based fro AASHTO
La = 2V Vcldmin=51A, A is in %
Symmetrical Sag Curve
 For sag curves, the main sight distance criterion to be
satisfied is night visibility
Vsldmin=Max[Lnv;Lc;La]
Vsldmin=min desirable length of sag vertical curve

SD2A Lnv=min length of sag curve to satisfy night
Lnv=----------------------- visibility
[2h+2SDtanθ]100 h=height of headlight above the surface
(assume to be 0.6m)
θ=beam angle, 1 degree
Symmetrical Sag Curve
Lc = [V2A]/389
La = 2V
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
FOR CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 CROSS SECTION IS THE VERTICAL PLANE
(SECTION) PERPENDICULAR TO THE LINEAR
DIRECTION OF THE ROAD
 CROSS SECTION DESIGN INVOLVES TWO MAIN

TASKS
 USE THE VALUES OF THE QUALITY OF DESIGN TO

ESTIMATE THE CONTROL VALUES OF ROADWAY AND
ROADSIDE DESIGN PARAMETERS
 JUDGEMENT ON THE BASIS OF TERRAIN CONDITION,
COST, ETC
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 Built up areas: cross section consists of
basically different types of traffic ways,
parking spaces and medians. The set of traffic
ways for vehicles is known as carriageway; the
combination of carriageways, parking spaces
and medians is a roadway
MEDIAN
CARRIAGEWAY
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
FOR CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 FOR ROADS OUTSIDE THE BUILT UP
AREAS: CROSS SECTION CONSISTS OF
ROADWAY (WITH ONE OR MORE
CARRIAGEWAYS) AND A ROADSIDE
 FOR INTERSECTIONS, CROSS SECTION
GENERALLY CONSISTS OF OPEN SPACES
AND TRAFFIC
 Cross Section Design involves the

determination of the following:
 Appropriate type of cross section
 Appropriate configuration of the type of cross
section
 Appropriate dimensions of each of the elements
of the configiration
 Estimation of Control Values of Design Parameters
a) Width of lane, W = Wv + Sm + Sf
Wv = width of design vehicle (m)
Sm = space req’d for lateral movements (m)
= 0.15-0.30 @ V=30 kph
= 0.25-0.40@ V=50 kph
= 0.40-0.50@V=70 kph or above
Sf= space req’d due to fear of sidewalk or object (trees, parked veh, etc)
= 0.25-0.40 for sidewalk; 0.50-0.60 for objects @ V = 30 kph
= 0.35-0.50 for sidewalk; 0.70-0.80 for objects @ V = 50 kph
= 0.50-0.60 for sidewalk; 0.90-1.0 m of robjects @ V = 70 kph
 Estimation of Control Values of Design Parameters
 For Built Up Areas
 W = (Vd/80) + 2
 Width of a bicycle lane

 Wbc = [2=3a] / 4 a=design number of bicycles riding side by side
= 2<a< 4
 For other type of conveyor (road)

Wsc = Wv + 0.50 Wsc =minimum desirable width of special conveyor
Wv =width of special conveyor
 Minimum Width of Safety Enhancement Places (Shoulders
and Parking Lanes)
 The minimum desirable width of a safety enhancement place depends on
whether the place is designated to be used as a shoulder or a parking lane. In
the case of a shoulder the usable width is usually between 0.6 and 3.6m-
depending on the class of road and traffic volume.
 The usable width of a shoulder can be determined as:
 Ws = minimum desirable useable width o shoulder (m)

 Wv = width of design vehicle (m)
 Cw = clearance (usually between 0 and 1.5)
In parallel parking, the minimum and desirable width are 3.0 and 3.6m respectively
 Minimum Desirable Number of Traffic Lanes for each Category of
Conveyors
 The desirable number of traffic lanes for each designated category of

conveyors is dependent on the design entry flow rate and design
service flow rate and can be estimated as:
Ndmin = DDFR/DSFR
Ndmin = desirable minimum number of lanes
DDFR = design demand flow rate in pcph (per car per hour)
DSFR = design service flow rate (pcph per traffic lane)
 Minimum Desirable Number of Traffic Lanes for each Category of Conveyors
DDFR = [AADT*EK*PF*DD]/ PHF
AADT = forecast average annual daily traffic

EK = percent of AADT during the peak hour
= 0.12-0.20 for rural routes
= 0.07 – 0.12 for urban routes
PF = proportion of conveyor category in a peak period traffic stream
DD = directional distribution factor = proportion of traffic of road which moves
in the major direction
PHF = peak hour factor
 Minimum Width of Median
 The minimum width of a median or center reserve, when necessary, can be between 2m
up and 30 m depending on the available right of way. The minimum desirable width
depends on the purpose of the median.
 A median may be designed for safety purposes in terms of (1) preventing accidents
caused by crossover traffic, headlight glare distraction and traffic turning left from
through lanes, (2) provide refuge for pedestrians crossing the highway
• Cross Slope or Camber of lanes or Crossfall – slope provided to the surface

of a lane in the transverse direction to drain off water from the surface.
Range of camber in Areas of

Rainfall Range
Types of Surface
Heavy To Light
Cement Concrete & High Type Bituminous 2.0% To 1.70%

surface
Thin Bituminous Surface 2.5% To 2.0%
Water Bound Macadam, and gravel Pavement 3.0% To 2.5%
Earth Surface 4.0% To 3.0%
Roadside Slopes
Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder
Cut Slope
1
S
Fill Slope Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder
1
S
 Main design parameters for the roadside slope

 Roadside slopes (embankment or cut) – the alternatives are either to select a steep
slope near the roadway and shield it with a traffic barrier or select a flat slope
 Drainage ditches – this will base from the slope of the drainage
Highway Geometric Design
Process
Survey Major Site Characteristics
Specify Design Standards
•Topography
•Local agency,
•Ground/soil conditions
•Functional Design
•Hydrologic conditions
•Environmental conditions/impacts
(Design Speed, cross sectional •Habitat
features, superelevation)
•Existing/zoned land use
Specify Design Standards Survey Major Site Characteristics
Local Agency Topography
Functional classification Ground/soil condition
Hydrologic condition
(Ex. Design speed, cross
Environmental condition
sectional, superelevation) Existing/zoned land use
Specify Major Design Controls

Design vehicl
Design speed
Volume/capacity/LOS
Horizontal controls(radius,
superelevation) &Vertical controls
(grades, intersection)
Cross section controls/elements
Earthwork controls (excavation,
Highway embankments)
Geometric Select Route
Identify alternate routes
Design Process Sketch horizontal and vertical alignments
Screen routes and select those for
preliminary design
Modificat
Conduct (Preliminary) Design ions?
Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
Cross sections
Drainage features
Earthwork
Environmental impacts
Evaluate Design
Costs (project costs, user costs)
Environmental impacts
Detailed Design
Existing ground Propose road
surface surface
Types of Road
Intersection
 The type of intersection may be divided
intro 3 categories. One is from its shape,
and one is from its structural type and
another is from its operational type.
 Shape
 Three-leg intersection
T-type Y-type
 Four Leg intersection
Right Angle Oblique

 Multi leg intersection
 Rotary intersection (Roundabout)
Structural Type of Intersection
 Intersection at Grade: two or more
roads intersection or join at the same
level
 Grade separated intersection: when one
highway crosses another at grade, the
capacity is reduced
 Structures with interchange
 Structures without intechange
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Forecasting/Traffic Design
Data
Geometric Design Pavement Design
• number of lanes • type of pavement

• width of lanes • thickness of subgrade, subbase,
• design speed base courses
• thickness of pavement
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
Traffic Information
* use for structural design purposes
* basis for traffic demand forecasting
* traffic volume estimation

* Traffic survey (visual or traffic counting)
* Transportation planning models (trip generation models)
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Class Cumulative Equivalent Traffic Description
(E80/lane)
1 (Feeder Roads) <0.20 x 106 Very light trafficked, very few
heavy vehicles
2 (Collector Roads) 0.2 – 0.8 x 106 Lightly trafficked roads, light
delivery and agricultural vehicles,
very few heavy vehicles
3 (Major Collector Roads) 0.8 - 3 x 106 Medium volume of traffic; few

heavy vehicles
4 (Highway) 3 - 12 x 106 High volume of traffic and/or
many heavy vehicles
5 (Expressway) 12 - 50 x 106 Very high volume of traffic
and/or high proportion of fully
laden heavy vehicles
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic forecasting
* forecasting of average daily traffic can be projected using a growth
factor (urban area is 20% and rural area 5%)
Formula for traffic forecasting :
Pn = Pi (1 + r )n
where: Pn =projected number of traffic
Pi = initial average daily traffic
r = growth rate
n = number of projected years
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 STANDARDS
Sample problem: Traffic Forecasting
Determine the possible number of average vehicle per day of a
rural road if the initial average daily traffic is 200, locality growth rate is
6% and design years is 5 years.
Sol’n:
Working Formula: Pn = Pi (1 + r )n
Given: Pi = 200 ADT, r = 6% and n = 5
Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 1 =212

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 2 =224.72~225
Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 3 =238.20
Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 4 =252.50
Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 5 =267.65~268

GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Safety
* optimizing by linking geometric elements to design speed
* design standards must take into account the environmental road
conditions, traffic characteristics and drivers behavior
* potential collision risk
Design Speed
* design varies with different terrain
* provide appropriate consistency between geometric elements
* mountainous and rolling areas speed limits as low as 40 kph
* review of design speed to ensure that they relate to current
circumstances
Transportation System Description:
Networks and Data
 Study Area
 Delineation of the study area
 Subdivision of the study area into zones
 Definition of zone centroids
Propose road
Transportation System Description:
Networks and Data
 Transportation models are being used

to make prediction and forecasts of
future changes in usage of traffic
facilities for sake of facility design,
control and operation.
Travel Choice Model System
 Trip Generation Model

 Trip Distribution Model
 Modal Choice Model
 Route Choice
Zonal
Trip Production
Data Trip frequency choice
Trip Attraction
Transport Trip Distribution destination choice
Networks
Modal Split modal choice
Travel
Period of day Time choice
Resistances
Assignment route choice
Network loads,
travel times, etc

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

DR. MANUEL MUHI

B. Highway Planning Process and

E. Road/Highway Design Criteria &

 Elements include: traffic loading, shape of road,

2. Ensure less potential

3. Reduce undesirable changes in the physical and human

Traffic loading information may be obtained from

Geometric Design Pavement Design

• number of lanes • type of pavement

* potential collision risk

Specify Major Design Controls

Available sight vertical alignment

 and lateral support of the pavement.

 Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved.

Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.

Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.

documented by the profile.

Symmetrical Vertical Curve

where y = elevation of a point on the curve

where g2 is the grade just beyond the end of the vertical

Vertical curves are classified as sags where g2 > g1 and

If grades are in percent, horizontal distance must be in

 In most cases, sight distance or appearance standards will

where S = sight distance (from Table)

 A commonly used mixed-unit version of the

where V is in km/h and R is in meters. Alternatively,

 Grade separation Solutions

ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)

OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)

OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)

 Assessment of adequacy of the design elements

 Assessment of reasonableness of the assumption of data

 Assessment of adequacy of design consistency

 Width of grading and surfacing of the proposed road

 Geotechnical data in these drawings shall include the complete

 Elements include: traffic loading, shape of road,

 Preliminary Survey –to obtain topography of the strip or strip

 Location survey – to transfer the paper projection determined

Route Determination of Determination of

Combination of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment

• Design should satisfy safety

• Economical and less negative

Good design Bad design

Good design Bad design

RH(m) RVm=100[LVC/g2-g1),%] RHm RVm=100[LVC/g2-g1)%]

500 10000 1000 10000

 Highway and railroad routes are chosen

Where: y & x = coordinates of

 Minimum Radius and Length of Curve

Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd)

AASHTO Values of Side Friction

 Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular

fsmax = 0.37 {0.0000214 *Vd2 - 0.0064Vd + 0.77}

 Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular

 Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular

Line of sight obstruction sight distance

 The value of maximum superelevation, e, may

edmax = Min[emax; V2/282 Rdmin]

edmax=max desirable value of

Extra widening Wdmin=desirable min amount of

Standard Widening of Curves

Radius Design Speed

The offset of the circular curve due to the transition curve

DDFR = [AADTEKPF*DD]/ PHF