Design to Prevent Fire, Explosion and

Runaway Reaction

Potential Ignition Sources

References:
1. Crowl and Louvar, 2012. Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with
Applications, 3rd Edition
2. Safety and Chemical Engineering Education (SACHE)
- Sam Mannan, 2009. Relief Systems
- Crowl and Louvar, 2008. Relief Sizing

1
 Potential Ignition Sources in Process Plants
• Flames; radio frequency (RF)
• hot work;
emissions;
• hot surfaces;
• hot particles; smoking;

• friction and impact; arson and sabotage;

• chemical energy; self-heating;
• hot materials and gases;
static electricity;
• reactive, unstable and
pyrophoric materials; electrical equipment
• engines; Autoignition of source
• vehicles; Compression of source
• lightning;
2
 Electrical Area Classification

 An atmosphere in which an ignitable concentration of

flammable gas or vapor is present or might
occasionally be present.
 An atmosphere in which combustible dust is, or could
conceivably be, in suspension in sufficient quantity to
cause an explosive or ignitable mixture.
 Electrical equipment on which combustible dust
might accumulate, and interfere with heat dissipation
from the equipment.
 Surfaces that contain easily ignitable fibers or flyings.
 Already discussed before

3
 Electrical Area Classification

 Electrical equipment has the potential to act as an

ignition source.
 Electrical classified area reduce the probability of
ignition by segregating the ignition sources and the
flammable cloud area, thus protecting the facility
from a chance of fire.

4
 Static Electricity, Lightning, & Stray
Current Protection
• Lightning Protection: Building structures that are
nonconductive can be equipped with air terminal
(“lightning rod”) conductors and ground terminal
systems to safely direct lightning strikes to ground

Grounding Bonding

5 CCPS GFP, 2004

 Hazardous Area Classification

 Plant layout plays a major role in preventing ignition

of flammable release which may occur. This aspect of
layout is known as Area Classification

 Initially electrical engineers used to carry out

‘electrical area classification’ since one of the
principal type of ignition source was electric motors

 Hazardous Area Classification extends to cover ALL

sources of ignition and is generally performed by
chemical engineers

6
 Information Sources
 BS5345:1977 Code of Practice for the Selection,
Installation and Maintenance of Electrical Apparatus
for Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres (Other
than Mining Applications or Explosive Processing and
Manufacture)
 Area Classification Code for Petroleum Installations
(IP, 1990 MCSP Pt15)
 In USA, Article 500 of NFPA 70: 1990 National
Electrical Code
 API RP 500: 1991 Recommended Practice for
Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations
and Petroleum Facilities

7
 Zones of Hazardous Area

 Process of Hazardous Area Classification assigns area

to one of the following categories:

• Zone 0: A zone in which a flammable atmosphere is

continuously present or present for long periods
• Zone 1: A zone in which a flammable atmosphere is likely
to occur for short period in normal condition
• Zone 2: A zone in which a flammable atmosphere is not
likely to occur in normal operation and if it occurs only exist
for a short time.
• A non-hazardous area is an area not classified as zone 0,1 or
2

8
 Hazardous Area Classification

 In USA, NFPA 70: 2002 gives in Article 500 the

classification
 The Class of an area depends of the flammable
material present
• Class I Locations where flammable gases or vapors are
present
• Class II Locations where flammable dusts are present
• Class III Locations where flammable dusts or fibers are present
but are not likely to be in the form of dust clouds
 Note that the US requirements differ from those in
Europe, et al.

9
 Hazardous Area Classification

 The IP Area Classification Code also makes use of the

following fluid categories:
• Fluid Category A A flammable liquid that, on release, would
vaporize rapidly and substantially.
• Fluid Category B A flammable liquid, not in Category A, but at
a temperature sufficient for boiling to occur on release.
• Fluid Category C A flammable liquid, not in Categories A and B,
but which can, on release, be at a temperature above its
flashpoint, or form a flammable mist.
• Fluid Category G A flammable gas or vapor

10
 Hazardous Area Classification

 NFPA 497 M: 1997 gives a grouping of atmospheric

mixtures
 Groups designate the presence of specific chemical
types. Chemicals that are in one Group have
“equivalent” hazards
– Group A acetylene
– Group B hydrogen, ethylene
– Group C carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide
– Group D butane, ethane, ethyl alcohol
– Group E aluminum dust
– Group G flour
– Group F carbon black (soot)

11
 Hazardous Area Classification

 Divisions indicate the probability of the material being

in the flammable range
– Division 1 Probability of ignition is high, i.e. flammable
concentrations are normally present or present for much of the
time
– Division 2 Hazardous only under abnormal conditions.
Flammable materials are normally in closed or sealed systems

 In an XP (Explosion Proof) area equipment must not be

capable of acting as a source of ignition. It must
therefore be certified as being suitable for use with
specified Classes, Groups and Divisions

12
 Hazardous Area Classification

 Purpose of HAC is to minimize the probability of

ignition of small leaks
 Not concerned with massive leaks-they are rare
 Grades of leaks
• Continuous Grade: Release is continuous or nearly so
• Primary grade: release is likely to happen regularly or at
random times during normal operation.
• Secondary grade: release is unlikely to happen in normal
operation and in any event will be of limited duration.
 Each grade equates to Zone 0, 1 and 2 respectively

13
 Strategies to HAC

 Hazardous Area Classification proceeds by identifying

• Sources of hazard
• Potential leaks (flanges, seals, sample points etc.)
• Sources of ignition (electric motors, engines, vehicles, burners
etc.)

 Strategy for HAC: Prevention, Separation, Protection

14
 Steps to HAC

 Identify Leaks:
• Define its characteristics (for startup, shutdown, emergency
and normal operations)
• Use guidance for separation distances to determine area around
leak source from which ignition sources need to be eliminated

 Identify Ignition Source

• For each, consider possibility of elimination of ignition source
• Where not applicable, specify zone and determine appropriate
protection

15
 Hot Work

 Hot work is one of the many regular sources of

ignition.

 Common hot work processes include welding,

soldering, cutting, brazing and grinding.

 Includes not only flame or arc but also material ignited

during an activity

 It is a common activity on process equipment, but

involves potential hazards both to equipment and
personnel, and needs to be closely controlled.

16
 Personal Ignition Sources

 Personal electronic or electrical devices may be

incendiary or can produce a spark that can act as a
source of ignition

 These include pagers, cell phones, PDAs (personal

digital assistants), personal radios or music players,
headphones, cameras etc.

 Typically these equipment do not have ‘nonincendive’

design

17
CCPS GFP, 2004
 Personal Ignition Sources

 Matches, lighters and carelessly discarded

cigarettes can impose a fire hazard

 Control of these is essential under a good fire

prevention program

 Management should build a good safety culture

to make its personnel aware of the hazards
related to these

18
 Flame Arrestors
 A flame arrestor is a device which allows gas to
pass through it but stops a flame in order to
prevent a larger fire or explosion
 Operating principle: removing heat from the
flame as it attempts to travel through narrow
passages with walls of metal or other heat-
conductive material
 Typical applications
• on vents of storage tanks containing flammable liquids
• on pipe systems supplying fuel gas to burners
• on certain pipelines conveying flammable gases within the
plant
• on flare stacks

19 Source : ENARDO Flame Arrestor Technology

 Flame Arrestors

20
Lees' Loss Prevention, 2012.
 Flame Arrestors

21 http://www.paradoxintellectual.com/how-flame-arresters-work.html
 Static Electricity
 Despite considerable efforts, serious explosions and
fires have occurred because of static electricity
 Prevention is developed by understanding the
fundamentals and using these fundamentals to
design features within a plant to prevent the
accumulation of static charges
 For unavoidable static charges, inert the
atmosphere around the regions where static sparks
are likely to occur
 Static charge is generated by separating a good
conductor from a poor conductor (e.g., insulator)
 Example : placing different materials in tumble
dryer and resulting clinging fabrics

22
 Processes where Static Electricity Effects
are Significant
Liquid-Solid • Flow of liquid through pipes, filters
• Splash filling of tanks
Liquid-Liquid • Mixing of immiscible liquids
• Settling of drops of one fluid through another
Gas-Liquid • Cleaning with wet steam
• Spraying with water
• Steam leaks
• Gas sparging
Gas-Solid • Pneumatic conveying
• Fluidized beds
• Dust filters
• Solids feeding
Solid-Solid • Belt drives
• Conveyor belts
• Reeling of paper or plastics
• Shrink wrapping
23
 Charge Accumulation

 Contact and frictional charging

• dissimilar materials
• s-s interfaces
 Double layer charging
• separation on microscopic scale at liquid interfaces (l-l, l-g, l-s)
 Induction charging
• a conductor is placed in an electric field created by an
electrostatic charge
 Charging by transport
• when charged objects contact an uncharged object and the
charge is shared between them

24
 Is there an Electrostatic Discharge
Hazard present?
Are sensitive flammable materials present? NO
(Flammable vapours, gases, aerosols, fine dusts, etc.)

YES
Is static electricity generated? NO
(Friction, contact, separation)
YES
Can electrostatic charge accumulate? NO
(Insulating materials, isolated conductors,
capacitors, the human body)
YES
NO
Can electrostatic discharges occur?
(Sparks, brush and propagating brush discharges)
YES
Is the discharge energy sufficient to cause ignition? NO
(Compare the discharge energy with the Minimum
Ignition Energy (MIE) of the flammable media)
YES
Electrostatic No electrostatic NO
discharge ignition Discharge hazard
Hazard present present

25
 Electrostatic Discharges

 Spark discharge:
• Between liquid or solid conductors
• luminous discharge channel
• The discharge is rapid and accompanied by an audible crack

 Brush discharge:
• Between a non-conductor and a conductor.
• brush-like appearance

26
Crowl & Louvar, 2011
 Electrostatic Discharges (contd.)

 Corona discharge
• Involves a small pointed conductor
• characterized by a hissing sound and a glow.
• Much lower energy density than in a spark.
• Equipment that might promote corona discharges
• dipsticks
• thermocouple probes
• agitators and shafts, etc.

27 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Electrostatic Discharges (contd.)

 Propagating brush discharge

• can occur from a high resistivity non-conductor in sheet form
with large opposing charges on its two surfaces.
• highly energetic spark-like discharge
• Types of equipment or operations that might promote
propagating brush discharges
• pouring of solids from plastic
• sacks or drums,
• winding or unwinding of films, etc.

28 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Energy from Electrostatic
Discharges

Q2
J 
2C

Q, the accumulated charge, coulombs

C, the capacitance of the object,
farads
V, potential of the object, volts
J, energy of discharge, Joules

29 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Energy of Electrostatic Ignition
Sources
A streaming current, Is
Flow of electricity produced by transferring electrons
from one surface to another by a flowing fluid or solid

10 X 106 amp  2  L 

Is   2 
ud  1  exp   
 m / s  m    u 
2

where:
Is is the streaming current (amps)
u is the fluid velocity (m/s)
d is the pipe diameter (m)
L is the pipe length (m), and
is the liquid relaxation time (seconds)

30
 Relaxation Time

The relaxation time, , is the time required for a

charge to dissipate by leakage and is calculated as:
 r o

c
where :
 r is the relative dielectric cons tan t (dim ensionless ) Table 7  2

 c is specific conductivity ( mho / cm ) Table 7  2

 o is the perimittivity cons tan t

12 coulomb 2 14 s
 8.85 X 10  8. 85 X 10
N m2 ohm cm
31
 Solids Streaming Current

 Charging of solids depends on type of operation such

as sieving, grinding, or transport.
 See Table 7-3 (page 315) for charge buildup for
various type operations (1st term in equation below)

 coulombs  kg 
I S      (charge)( flowrate)
 kg  s 

 See Table 7-4 for accepted electrostatic values for

various calculations … MIEs, approximate
capacitances…

32
 Electrostatic Voltage Drops

Fluid flows through the feed line and drops into the
tank. The streaming current builds up a charge and
voltage in the feed line to the vessel and in the vessel
itself.
V  IsR

L
R
cA

where :
L is the length of the conductor ( cm )
R is the resis tan ce (ohms)
 c is conductivity of the fluid ( mho / cm )
A is the area of the conductor ( cm 2 )
33 Crowl & Louvar, 2011
 Energy of Charged Capacitors
The amount of work required to increase the charge on a
capacitor is calculated as:
where :
CV 2 QV J is the work ( Joules )
J  C is the capaci tan ce ( farads)
2 2
V is the voltage (volts)
Q is the ch arg e on the capacitor (coulombs )

Assuming a constant streaming current,

where :
Q  I st I s is the strea min g current (amps)
t is the time (sec onds)

Capacitances of various objects common to chemical

industry – Table 7-5

34
 Example
 Because of static electricity, a charge may develop at the
charging nozzle. It has been proposed that the flow rate
be increased from 1 gpm to 150 gpm. What
considerations should be given before the change is
implemented?

35 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Example

 Other data include:

Hose length: 20 ft Hose diameter: 2 inch
Liquid conductivity: 10-8 mho/cm Density: 0.88 gm/cm3
Dielectric constant, r : 25.7

36 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Example Problem – Solution

37
 Example Problem – Solution

38
 Example Problem – Solution

39
 Example Problem – Solution

Thus spark between flanges unlikely ignition source

40
 Example Problem – Solution

41
 Example Problem – Solution

42
 Example Problem Questions to Ponder

 Should we make the change to the new flow rate?

 If the change must be made, how should it be done?

 What other measures should be taken to ensure the

safety of the process?

43
 Capacitance of a Body
Buildup of charge on one body relative to another
produces a capacitor. Properties are estimated in terms
of flat plates or spherical geometries.
In Parallel flat

QL r 0 A
V C
r 0 A L

 Spherical
1 Q
V C  4  r  0 r
4  0  r r
44
 Balance of Charges

For systems with several inlet lines and several outlet lines,
such as a vessel. Charge balance is based on currents flowing
in, flowing out, and charge loss from relaxation:
dQ n m
  I s i , in   I s  j , out 
Q
dt 

m F
dQ n
  I s i , in   Q 
j Q
dt Vc 

With the latter equation based on substituting current

flowing out in terms of charge accumulated in vessel of size V
and discharge from specific nozzle, F.
45
 Balance of Charges – Special Cases

Case I
The flows, streaming currents, and relaxation time are constant

Q  A  B e C t

A, B and C are given by expressions on page 326, as well as

conditions under which this expression applies.
Case II
Filling a tank (one inlet, no outlet)
t
Q  I s  Q0  I s e 

46
 Preventing Electrostatic Ignition
 Three methods used to prevent charge buildup:
• Reduce charge accumulation and increase relaxation,
generally for liquids; enlarged pipe for hold time = /2 to 2
to increase discharge
• Reduce charge accumulation in powders, solids: include
charge reduction by low-energy discharges; thin, conductive
surfaces
• Control oxidant levels: inerting; control fuels below LFL or
above UFL

 Specific design features are incorporated to prevent

each type of discharge – spark, propagating brush…

47
 Relaxation

 Hold time provides for charge reduction by

relaxation

 Hold time equal to or greater than one-half the

relaxation time is sufficient to eliminate charge
build-up

 “Twice the relaxation time” rule provides a safety

factor of 4

48
 Bonding & Grounding

 Reduce voltage differences of conductors to zero

(ground level) by connecting the two with a
conducting wire

49 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Typical Earthing Tactics

50 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Typical Earthing Tactics
Unloading Tank Trucks or Cars

51 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Typical Earthing Tactics
Bonding Procedures for Valves, Pipes, and Flanges

52 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 Adding Solids to a Reactor:
No Flammable Vapors

53 Crowl & Louvar, 2011

 References
 Crowl, Daniel A., and Joseph F. Louvar. Chemical process safety:
Fundamentals with Applications. Prentice Hall, 2011.
 Mannan, Sam, ed. Lees' Loss prevention in the process industries:
Hazard identification, assessment and control. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2012.
 Grossel, Stanley S. ,Guidelines for Fire Protection in Chemical,
Petrochemical, and Hydrocarbon Processing Facilities, Center for
Chemical Process Safety, AIChE CCPS/AIChE, New York, NY, 2004.
[CCPS GFP]
 Grossel, Stanley S., Guidelines for Facility Siting and Layout, Center
for Chemical Process Safety, AIChE (CCPS/AIChE), New York, NY,
2004. [CCPS GFSL]

54