DIGITAL

ELECTRONICS
BASICS

Suresh P. Nair [AIE, ME, (PhD)] MIEEE

Professor & Head
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering
Royal College of Engineering and Technology
 Module 1
1. Introduction
2. Number Systems
3. Binary Arithmetic
4. Logic Functions
5. Boolean Algebra
6. Minimization Techniques
 Module 1
1. Introduction
2. Number Systems
3. Binary Arithmetic
4. Logic Functions
5. Boolean Algebra
6. Minimization Techniques
 Introduction
to
Digital Electronics
 Analog Quantities
Most natural quantities that we see are analog and vary
continuously.
Analog systems can generally handle higher power than
digital systems.

Floyd, Digital © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ

 Digital Quantities
A digital quantity has a set of discrete values.

Digital systems can process, store, and transmit data more

efficiently but can only assign discrete values to each point.
 Digital Waveforms
HIGH HIGH
Rising or Falling or Falling or Rising or
leading edge trailing edge leading edge trailing edge

LOW LOW
t0 t1 t0 t1

(a) Positive–going pulse (b) Negative–going pulse

Digital waveforms change between the LOW and HIGH

levels.
A positive going pulse is one that goes from a normally LOW
logic level to a HIGH level and then back again.
Digital waveforms are made up of a series of pulses.

Floyd, Digital © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ

 Analog Example
A public address system, used to amplify sound so that it can
be heard by large audience, is one example of an application
of analog electronics.
 Digital Example
• A computer system is one example of an application of
digital electronics.
 A Mixed System
• The compact disk (CD) player is an example of a system in
which both digital and analog circuits are used.
 Analog Vs. Digital

• Analog
– Continuous
– Can take on any values in a given range
– Very susceptible to noise
• Digital
– Discrete
– Can only take on certain values in a given range
– Can be less susceptible to noise
Advantages Over Analog

• Programmability
• Predictable accuracy
• Maintainability
• Processed more efficiently and reliably
• Compact storage
• Does not affected by noise as well as analog
values
 Example

Controlling a storage tank system for a pancake syrup manufacturing

 Example

0 1 2 3 VCC
K_L0 K_L1 K_L2 K_L3
4 5 6 7
K_L4 K_L5 K_L6 K_L7
8 9 * #
K_L8 K_L9 K_L10 K_L11
DEADLOCK CONTROL D4 RELAY
1N4148 4V

B1
VCC 120V

K_L[11..0] ACTUATOR
KEY_ENCODER Q1 R1
R2
COD[3..0] C[3..0] Z BC547 12k 120V
1k

GS GS
K_L[11..0] D1
GND

ON-OFF-CONTROL
ENCODER RA
100MEG

A key-coded deadbolt
What digital electronics do you use?
• Computer
• CD & DVD players
• IPod
• Cell phone
• HDTV
• Digital cameras
 What are digital electronics?
• Sound is an analog signal.
• On a CD, digital sound is
encoded as 44.1 kHz, 16 bit
audio.
– The original wave is 'sliced' 44,100
times a second - and an average
amplitude level is applied to each
sample.
– 16 bit means that a total of 65,536
different values can be assigned,
or quantized to each sample.
• DVD-Audio can be 96 or 192
kHz and up to 24 bits resolution
 ADC

1
0
1.4V Analog 0
Sample and
To 1
hold 1
Digital 0
0
1

Analog to digital converder

-Sampling time/sampling frequency fs
-Number of bits
 Sampling
Level

Time

Level
 Serial and Parallel Data
Data can be transmitted by either serial transfer or parallel
transfer.

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
t0 t1 t2 t3 t 4 t5 t6 t7
Computer Modem

1
Computer Printer
0

0
t0 t1
Floyd, Digital © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ
Serial communication between computers.
Parallel communication between a computer and a
printer.
 A Computer is…
• A digital electronics device
that combine hardware and
software to accept the
input of data, process
and store the
data, and
produce some
useful output.
 Digital Electronics

• Digital electronics devices store and

process bits electronically.
– A bit represents data using 1’s and 0’s
– Eight bits is a byte – the standard grouping in
digital electronics
– Digitization is the process of transforming
information into 1’s and 0’s
 Microprocessor
• The computer you are using to read this page uses a
microprocessor to do its work.

• The microprocessor is the heart of any normal

computer .

• The microprocessor you are using might be a

Pentium, a K6, a PowerPC, a Sparc or any of the
many other brands and types of microprocessors.
 Microprocessor (Processor)
• Designed to process instructions
• Largest chip on motherboard
• Intel: world’s largest chipmaker (Pentiums)
• AMD: Cheaper chips (Athlons)
 Motherboard
• Main circuit board
Processor Components
 Processor Performance
• Speed: processor clock set clock speed (MHz
or GHz )
• Word Size: number of bits the processor can
manipulate at one time (32-bit or 64-bit)
• Cache: high speed memory (kilobytes)
 Memory Types

• Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Virtual Memory
• Read-Only Memory (ROM)
• CMOS
Memory Cells
Physical File Storage
• Storage medium formatted into
tracks /sectors electronically

• File system keeps track of names and

file locations.

• Clusters: a group of sectors that

speeds up storage and retrieval
Digital Data Representation
• The form in which information
is conceived, manipulated and
recorded on a digital device.

• Uses discrete digits/electronic

signals

Byte = 8 bits = 1 character

Numeric Data

• Consists of numbers
representing quantities used in
arithmetic operations.
– Binary system, “Base 2”
- 1,0 (bits - binary digits)
- On/Off, Yes/No
Digital Technology Metrics
Kilo, Mega, Giga, what comes next?
 Binary Digits
• The two digits in the binary system, 1 and 0, are called bits,
which is a contraction of the words binary digit.
 How to represent 0 and 1?

• In digital circuits, two different voltage

levels are used to represent the two bits.

• The higher/lower voltage level is referred

to as a HIGH/LOW, or H/L.
 Logic Levels

• The voltages used to represent a 1 and a 0 are called logic

levels.
• HIGH can be any voltage between a specified minimum
value and a specified maximum value.
• LOW can be any voltage between a specified minimum
and a specified maximum.
Binary Representations
 Positive Logic System
• A 1 is represented by HIGH and a 0 is represented by LOW.
• Also called ACTIVE HIGH LOGIC
 Negative Logic System
• A 0 is represented by HIGH and a 1 is represented by LOW.
• Also called ACTIVE LOW LOGIC
 Codes
• Groups of bits (combination of 1s and 0s), called codes, are
used to represent numbers, letters, symbols, instructions,
and anything else required in a given application.
• The American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) – pronounced “askee” – is a universally accepted
alphanumeric code used in most computers and other
electronic equipment.

1
ASCII
 Digital Waveforms

• Digital waveforms consists of a series of pulses, (voltage

levels that are changing back and forth between the HIGH
and LOW levels).
 Pulse Train

• Digital waveforms are sometimes called pulse trains.

 Ideal Pulses

• A single positive-going pulse is generated when the voltage

goes from its normally LOW level to its HIGH level and then
back to its LOW level.
• A single negative-going pulse is generated when the voltage
goes from its normally HIGH level to its LOW level and then
back to its HIGH level.
 Nonideal Pulse
• The time required for the pulse to go from its LOW (HIGH) level
to its HIGH (LOW) level is called the rise (fall) time.
• In practice, it is common to measure rise (fall) time from
10%(90%) of the pulse amplitude to 90%(10%) of the pulse
amplitude.
 Nonideal Pulse
• The pulse width is a measure of the duration of the
pulse and is often defined as the time interval
between the 50% points on the rising and falling
edges.
 Periodic Pulse
• A periodic waveform is one that repeats itself at a fixed interval,
called a period (T ).
• The frequency (f ) is the rate at which it repeats itself and is
measured in hertz (Hz).
• The relationship between f and T is expressed as follows:

1 1
f  , T
T f
 Periodic Pulse
• The duty cycle (D ) is defined as the ratio of the pulse width (tw )
to the period (T ) and can be expressed as a percentage.

 tW 
D   100%
T 
 Nonperiodic Pulse

• A nonperiodic waveform, of course, does not repeat

itself at fixed intervals.
• They are composed of pulses of randomly differing
pulses widths and/or randomly differing time intervals
between the pulses.
A Digital Waveform Carries Binary Information
• Binary information that is handled by digital systems appears
as waveforms that represent sequences of bits.
• When the waveform is HIGH, a binary 1 is present; when the
waveform is LOW, a binary 0 is present.
• Each bits in a sequence occupies a defined time interval called
a bit time, or bit interval.
 The Clock
• In digital systems, all digital waveforms are
synchronized with a basic timing waveform, called
the clock.
• The clock is a periodic waveform.
• The clock waveform itself does not carry information.
 Timing Diagrams
• A timing diagram is a graph of digital waveforms
showing the actual time relationship of two or more
waveforms and how each changes in relation to the
others.
 Data Transfer
• Data refers to groups of
bits that convey some
type of information.

• Binary data, which are

represented by digital
waveforms, must be
transferred from one
circuit to another within a
digital system or from one
system to another in
order to accomplish a
given purpose.
 Serial Data Transfer
• When bits are transferred in serial form from one point to
another, they are sent one bit at a time along a single
conductor.
• To transfer n bits in series, it takes n time intervals.
 Parallel Data Transfer
• When bits are transferred in parallel form, all the bits in a
group are sent out on separate lines at the same time.
• There is one line for each bit.
• To transfer n bits in parallel, it takes one time interval.
 Module 1
1. Introduction
2. Number Systems
3. Binary Arithmetic
4. Logic Functions
5. Boolean Algebra
6. Minimization Techniques
Number System
It depends on the number system
 Number Systems

• To talk about binary data, we must first talk

about number systems

• The decimal number system (base 10) you

should be familiar with!

• Positional number system

 Positional Notation
•Value of number is determined by multiplying each
digit by a weight and then summing.

a3a2 a1a0 .a1a2 

1 2
a3  r  a2  r  a1  r  a0  r  a1  r
3 2 1 0
 a 2  r

•The weight of each digit is a POWER of the RADIX

(also called BASE) and is determined by position.
 Radix (Base) of a Number System
• Decimal Number System (Radix = 10)
Eg:- 7392 = 7x103+3x102+9x101+2x100

• Binary Number System (Radix = 2)

Eg:- 101.101 = 1x22+0x11+1x20+1x2-1+0x2-11x2-2

• Octal number system (radix = 8)

• Hexadecimal number system (radix = 16)

 Radix (Base) of a Number System
• When counting upwards in base-10, we increase the
units digit until we get to 10 when we reset the units
to zero and increase the tens digit.
• So, in base-n, we increase the units until we get to n
when we reset the units to zero and increase the n-s
digit.
• Consider hours-minutes-seconds as an example of a
base-60 number system:
– Eg. 12:58:43 + 00:03:20 = 13:02:03

NB. The base of a number is often indicated by a subscript.

E.g. (123)10 indicates the base-10 number 123.
64
 Decimal Number Systems
• Base 10
– Ten digits, 0-9
– Columns represent (from right to left) units, tens,
hundreds etc.

123

1102 + 2101 + 3100

or
1 hundred, 2 tens and 3 units
 Binary Number System
• Base 2
– Two digits, 0 & 1
– Columns represent (from right to left) units, twos,
fours, eights etc.

1111011

126 + 125 + 124 + 123 + 022 + 121 + 120

= 164 + 132 + 116 + 18 + 04 + 12 + 11

= 123
 Binary Numbers
• Each binary digit (called bit) is either 1 or 0
• Bits have no inherent meaning, can represent
– Unsigned and signed integers
– Characters
Most Least
– Floating-point numbers Significant Bit Significant Bit
– Images, sound, etc. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
• Bit Numbering 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

– Least significant bit (LSB) is rightmost (bit 0)

– Most significant bit (MSB) is leftmost (bit 7 in an 8-bit number)
 Data Organization
• Bits
– or one, true or false, on or off, male or female,
and right or wrong.
• Nibbles
– Group of 4 bits
Bytes
Words
Double Words
 Octal Number System
• Base 8
– Eight digits, 0-7
– Columns represent (from right to left) units, 8s,
64s, 512s etc.

173

182 + 781  380 = 123

 Hexadecimal Number System
• Base 16
– Sixteen digits, 0-9 and A-F (ten to fifteen)
– Columns represent (from right to left) units, 16s,
256s, 4096s etc.

7B

7161 + 11160 = 123

 Hexadecimal Integers
• More convenient to use than binary numbers
Binary, Decimal, and Hexadecimal Equivalents
 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Example – Converting (123)10 into binary

123  2 = 61 remainder 1 Least significant bit (LSB)

61  2 = 30 remainder 1 (rightmost)
30  2 = 15 remainder 0
15  2 = 7 remainder 1
72 = 3 remainder 1
32 = 1 remainder 1
12 = 0 remainder 1 Most significant bit (MSB)
(leftmost)

Answer : (123)10 = (1111011)2

 Decimal to Binary Conversion

Integer Remainder
The quotient is divided by 2
41 until the new quotient
20 1 becomes 0
10 0
5 0
2 1
1 0
0 1 101001 answer
 Converting Decimal to Binary
• To convert a fraction, keep multiplying the fractional part by
2 until it becomes 0. Collect the integer parts in forward
order
• Example: 162.375:
• So, (162.375)10 = (10100010.011)2

162 / 2 = 81 rem 0 0.375 x 2 = 0.750

81 / 2 = 40 rem 1 0.750 x 2 = 1.500
40 / 2 = 20 rem 0 0.500 x 2 = 1.000
20 / 2 = 10 rem 0
10 / 2 = 5 rem 0
5/2=2 rem 1
2/2=1 rem 0
1/2=0 rem 1
Why does this work?
• This works for converting from decimal to
any base
• Why? Think about converting 162.375 from
decimal to decimal

162 / 10 = 16 rem 2 0.375 x 10 = 3.750

16 / 10 = 1 rem 6 0.750 x 10 = 7.500
1 / 10 = 0 rem 1 0.500 x 10 = 5.000
 Binary to Decimal Conversion
• Each bit represents a power of 2
• Every binary number is a sum of powers of 2
• Decimal Value = (dn-1  2n-1) + ... + (d1  21) + (d0  20)
• Binary (10011101)2 = 27 + 24 + 23 + 22 + 1 = 157

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Some common
powers of 2
 Converting Binary to Decimal
• For example, here is 1101.01 in binary:
1 1 0 1 . 0 1 Bits
23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 Weights (in base 10)

(1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20) + (0 x 2-1) + (1 x 2-2) =

8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0.25 = 13.25

(1101.01)2 = (13.25)10
Unsigned Binary Numbers
 Binary and Octal Conversions
• Converting from octal to binary: Replace each octal digit with
its equivalent 3-bit binary sequence

(673.12)8 = 6 7 3 . 1 2
= 110 111 011 . 001 010
= (110111011.001010)2

Octal Binary Octal Binary

0 000 4 100
1 001 5 101
2 010 6 110
3 011 7 111
 Binary and Octal Conversions
• Converting from binary to octal: Make groups of 3 bits,
starting from the binary point. Add 0s to the ends of the
number if needed. Convert each bit group to its
corresponding octal digit.

10110100.0010112 = 010 110 100 . 001 0112

= 2 6 4 . 1 38

Octal Binary Octal Binary

0 000 4 100
1 001 5 101
2 010 6 110
3 011 7 111
 Binary and Hex Conversions
• Converting from hex to binary: Replace each hex digit with its
equivalent 4-bit binary sequence

261.3516 = 2 6 1 . 3 516
=0010 0110 0001 . 0011 01012

Hex Binary Hex Binary Hex Binary Hex Binary

0 0000 4 0100 8 1000 C 1100
1 0001 5 0101 9 1001 D 1101
2 0010 6 0110 A 1010 E 1110
3 0011 7 0111 B 1011 F 1111
 Binary and Hex Conversions
• Converting from binary to hex: Make groups of 4 bits, starting
from the binary point. Add 0s to the ends of the number if
needed. Convert each bit group to its corresponding hex digit

10110100.0010112 = 1011 0100 . 0010 11002

= B 4 . 2 C16

Hex Binary Hex Binary Hex Binary Hex Binary

0 0000 4 0100 8 1000 C 1100
1 0001 5 0101 9 1001 D 1101
2 0010 6 0110 A 1010 E 1110
3 0011 7 0111 B 1011 F 1111
Numbers with Different Bases
Decimal Binary Octal Hex
0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
 Two Interpretations
unsigned signed
16710 101001112 -8910

• Signed vs. unsigned is a matter of interpretation;

thus a single bit pattern can represent two different
values.
• Allowing both interpretations is useful:
Some data (e.g., count, age) can never be
negative, and having a greater range is useful.
 Changing the Sign

Sign+Magnitude: 2’s Complement:

+6 = 0110 +6 = 0110
Change 1 bit Invert
-6 = 1110 +4 = 1001
+1 Increment
-6 = 1010
 Why Not Sign+Magnitude?
• Complicates addition :
+3 0011 – To add, first check the signs. If they
+2 0010 agree, then add the magnitudes and
+1 0001 use the same sign; else subtract the
smaller from the larger and use the
+0 0000 sign of the larger.
-0 1000
– How do you determine which is
-1 1001 smaller/larger?
-2 1010
• Complicates comparators:
-3 1011
– Two zeroes!
 Which is Greater: 1001 or 0011?
Answer: It depends!

It’s a matter of interpretation, and depends on

how x and y were declared: signed? Or unsigned?
 Why Not Sign+Magnitude?
9 1001
-1

0011
3 +3

+ Hardware +
Adder

Manipulates bit
12 patterns, not 1100 -4
numbers!
Right! Wrong!
 Why 2’s Complement?
1. Just as easy to determine sign as in
+3 0011 sign+magnitude.
+2 0010
2. Almost as easy to change the sign
+1 0001 of a number.
0 0000 3. Addition can proceed w/out
-1 1111 worrying about which operand is
larger.
-2 1110
4. A single zero!
-3 1101
5. One hardware adder works for both
-4 1100
signed and unsigned operands.
 Easier Hand Method

Step 2: Copy the +6 = 0110 Step 1: Copy the

inverse of the bits from right to
remaining bits. left, through and
including the first 1.

-6 = 1010
One Hardware Adder Handles Both!
(or subtractor)
9 1001 -7

3 0011 +3

+ Hardware
+
Adder

Manipulates bit
patterns, not
12 1100 -4
numbers!
 Twos Complement
• Most common scheme of representing
negative numbers in computers
• Affords natural arithmetic (no special rules!)
• To represent a negative number in 2’s
complement notation…
1. Decide upon the number of bits (n)
2. Find the binary representation of the +ve value in n-
bits
3. Flip all the bits (change 1’s to 0’s and vice versa)
4. Add 1
 Twos Complement Example
• Represent -5 in binary using 2’s complement
notation
1. Decide on the number of bits 6 bits(for example)

2. Find the binary representation of the +ve value in 6

bits 000101
+5
3. Flip all the bits 111010

111010
4. Add 1 + 1
-5
111011
 “Complementary” Notation
• Conversions between positive and negative
numbers are easy
• For binary (base 2)…
2’s C

+ve -ve

2’s C
 Example
+5 0 0 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1 0
2’s C
+ 1

-5 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 0 0
2’s C
+ 1

+5 0 0 0 1 0 1
 Properties of Two's Complement
Numbers
• X plus the complement of X equals 0.
• There is one unique 0.
• Positive numbers have 0 as their leading bit (MSB);
while negatives have 1 as their MSB.
• The range for an n-bit binary number in 2’s
complement representation is:
from -2(n-1) to 2(n-1) - 1
• The complement of the complement of a number is
the original number.
• Subtraction is done by addition to the complement
of the number.
The Two’s Complement
Representation
 Range of Unsigned Integers
Total no. of patterns of n bits = 2 2 2… 2
‘n’ 2’s
= 2n
If n-bits are used to represent an unsigned integer
value:
Range: 0 to 2n-1 (2n different values)
 Range of Signed Integers

• Half of the 2n patterns will be used for

positive values, and half for negative.

• Half is 2n-1.

• Positive Range: 0 to 2n-1-1 (2n-1 patterns)

• Negative Range: -2n-1 to -1 (2n-1 patterns)

• 8-Bits (n = 8): -27 (-128) to +27-1 (+127)

 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

1. Packed BCD (2 digits per byte):

0111 0011
7 3

2.Unpacked BCD (1 digit per byte):

0000 0111 0000 0011

7 3
What Values Can Be Represented in N Bits?

• Unsigned: 0 to 2N - 1
• 2s Complement: - 2 N-1 to 2 N-1 - 1
• BCD 0 to 10 N/4 - 1

• For 32 bits:
Unsigned: 0 to 4,294,967,295
2s Complement: - 2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
BCD: 0 to 99,999,999
What Values Can Be Represented in N Bits?

• But, what about

– Very large numbers?

9,369,396,989,487,762,367,254,859,087,678

– . . . or very small number?

0.0000000000000000000000000318579157
 Only Solution is ……..
• FLOATING POINT REPRESENTATION

• Floating point representation allows much

larger range at the expense of accuracy

• Floating point representation is otherwise

called as SCIENTIFIC REPRESENTATION
 Floating Point Representation
Decimal

Mantissa(Significand): It contain both Sign Exponent: It contain both Sign

and magnitude and magnitude

23 -24
1.02 x 10 -1.673 x 10

Decimal point Radix (Base)

 Floating Point Representation
Binary

Mantissa(Significand): May be Unsigned Exponent: It contain both Sign

or Signed and magnitude

yyyyyyy
1.xxxxx X 2

Number of ‘y’s
Number of ‘x’s determines range
determines accuracy

Binary point Radix (Base)

 IEEE floating point format

• IEEE defines two formats with different precisions:

1. IEEE Single Precision format

2. IEEE Double Precision format

 Single & Double Precision

32 bits

Single
Precision
8 bits 23 bits

Sign
(1 bit) Exponent Significand
64 bits

Double
Precision
11 bits 52 bits
 IEEE floating point format

23.8510 = 10111.1101102 =1.0111110110 x 24

e = 127+4 = 13110 = 100000112 = 8316 or 83h
0 100 0001 1 011 1110 1100 1100 1100 1100
 Module 1
1. Introduction
2. Number Systems
3. Binary Arithmetic
4. Logic Functions
5. Boolean Algebra
6. Minimization Techniques
 Binary
Arithmetic
 Binary Arithmetic Operations
1. Binary Addition

2. Binary Subtraction
1. 1’s Complement Subtraction
2. 2’s Complement Subtraction

3. Binary Multiplication

4. Binary Division
 Decimal Addition Explanation

What just happened?

111
1 1 1 (carry)
3758 3 7 5 8
+4 6 5 7
+ 4657 8 14 11 15 (sum)
- 10 10 10 (subtract the base)
8415 8 4 1 5

So when the sum of a column is equal to or greater than

the base, we subtract the base from the sum, record the
difference, and carry one to the next column to the left.
 Binary Addition Rules
Rules:
0+0 =0
0+1 =1 (just like in decimal)
1+0 =1

 1+1 = 210
= 102 = 0 with 1 to carry

 1 + 1 + 1 = 310
= 112 = 1 with 1 to carry
 Binary Addition Example 1
Col 1) Add 1 + 0 = 1
Example 1: Add Write 1
binary 110111 to 11100 Col 2) Add 1 + 0 = 1
Write 1
Col 3) Add 1 + 1 = 2 (10 in binary)
1 1 1 1 Write 0, carry 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 Col 4) Add 1+ 0 + 1 = 2
Write 0, carry 1
+ 0 1 1 1 0 0 Col 5) Add 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 (11 in binary)
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 Write 1, carry 1
Col 6) Add 1 + 1 + 0 = 2
Write 0, carry 1
Col 7) Bring down the carried 1
Write 1
 Binary Addition Explanation
In the first two columns,
What is actually there were no carries.
happened when we In column 3, we add 1 + 1 = 2
carried in binary? Since 2 is equal to the base, subtract
the base from the sum and carry 1.
1 1 1 1 In column 4, we also subtract
the base from the sum and carry 1.
1 1 0
1 1 1
In column 5, we also subtract
+ 0 1 1
1 0 0 the base from the sum and carry 1.
2 3 2
2 In column 6, we also subtract
the base from the sum and carry 1.
- 2 2 2
2 .
In column 7, we just bring down the
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 carried 1
 Binary Addition Verification

You can always check your Verification

answer by converting the
figures to decimal, doing the 1101112  5510
addition, and comparing the
answers. +0111002 + 2810
8310
1 1 0 1 1 1
+ 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 12
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 = 64+0+16+0+0+2+1
= 8310
 Binary Addition Example 2

Example 2: Verification
Add 1111 to 111010. 1110102  5810
+ 0011112 +1510
1 1 1 1 1 7310
1 1 1 0 1 0
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
+ 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 = 64 + 8 +1
= 7310
 BCD Addition
Add 965 and 672

965 - 1001 0110 0101 +

Greater than 9.
So add 6 with 672 - 0110 0111 0010 Greater than 9.
the nibble So add 6 with the
1111 1101 0111 + nibble

0110 0110
0001 0110 0011 0111  (1637)10
 Decimal Subtraction Example

Subtract 1) Try to subtract 5 – 7  can’t.

4657 from 8025: Must borrow 10 from next column.
Add the borrowed 10 to the original 5.
Then subtract 15 – 7 = 8.
2) Try to subtract 1 – 5  can’t.
7 9 11 Must borrow 10 from next column.
8 10 2 15 But next column is 0, so must go to
column after next to borrow.
- 4 6 5 7 Add the borrowed 10 to the original 0.
Now you can borrow 10 from this column.
3 3 6 8
Add the borrowed 10 to the original 1..
Then subract 11 – 5 = 6
3) Subtract 9 – 6 = 3
4) Subtract 7 – 4 = 3
 Decimal Subtraction Explanation
8 0 2 5
- 4 6 5 7
3 3 6 8

 So when you cannot subtract, you borrow from the column to

the left.

 The amount borrowed is 1 base unit, which in decimal is 10

 The 10 is added to the original column value, so you will be

able to subtract.
 Binary Subtraction Explanation

 In binary, the base unit is 2

 So when you cannot subtract, you borrow from the

column to the left.
 The amount borrowed is 2.
 The 2 is added to the original column value, so
you will be able to subtract.
 Binary Subtraction Example 1
Col 1) Subtract 1 – 0 = 1
Col 2) Subtract 1 – 0 = 1
Col 3) Try to subtract 0 – 1  can’t.
Example 1: Subtract Must borrow 2 from next column.
binary 11100 from 110011 But next column is 0, so must go to
column after next to borrow.
Add the borrowed 2 to the 0 on the right.
2 1 Now you can borrow from this column
(leaving 1 remaining).
0 0 2 2 Add the borrowed 2 to the original 0.
1 1 0 0 1 1 Then subtract 2 – 1 = 1
Col 4) Subtract 1 – 1 = 0
- 1 1 1 0 0 Col 5) Try to subtract 0 – 1  can’t.
Must borrow from next column.
1 0 1 1 1 Add the borrowed 2 to the remaining 0.
Then subtract 2 – 1 = 1
Col 6) Remaining leading 0 can be ignored.
 Binary Subtraction Verification

Subtract binary
Verification
11100 from 110011: 1100112  5110
- 111002 - 2810
2310
1 1 0 0 1 1
- 1 1 1 0 0 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
= 16 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 2310
 Binary Subtraction Example 2

Verification
Example 2: Subtract
binary 10100 from 101001 1010012  4110
- 101002 - 2010
2110
0 2 0 2
1 0 1 0 0 1 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
- 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 = 16 + 4 + 1
= 2110
 1’s complement Subtraction
• Steps:
a. First find out the 1’s Complement of the subtrahend.

b. Then do unsigned addition on the numbers.

c. If there is a carry, then take the carry out and add it

to the sum for getting the final result.

d. If there is no carry, the result will be negative and

we should take the 1’s Complement of the sum to
get final result
 1’s complement Subtraction
• Example: 7 – 4 = ?

0111 (+7)
+ 1011 + (- 4)
1 0010

0010
+ 1
0011 (+3)
 1’s complement Subtraction
• Example: 4 – 7 = ?

0100 (+4)
+ 1000 + (- 7)
1100

No carry, so take the 1’s complement of the result and will

be negative.

1’s complement of 1 1 0 0 is 0 0 1 1 = (-3)

 2’s Complement Subtraction
• To Subtract two binary numbers, take the 2’s
Complement of the Subtrahend and add it with the
Minuend.

• If there is a final carry after the leftmost column

addition, discard it and the final result is the obtained
one.

• If there is no carry, the result is negative. So the final

result will be the 2’s Complement of the obtained and
put a “ – “ sign
 2’s Complement Subtraction
• Example without CARRY:-
• Q: 20 - 25
Write -25 in two's complement format.
11100110 one's complement
11100111 two's complement

11100111 (-25)
00010100 ( 20)
11111011

•No carry , so take 2’s Complement of the result.

•Final Result = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 = (- 5)
 2’s Complement Subtraction
• Example with CARRY:-
• Q: 10 – 5
• 2’s Complement of 5 = 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

00001010+
11111011
100000101

• Now discard the carry and the obtained is the result

• Final result = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 = (5)
 2’s Complement Subtraction

• The difference, (a – b) is computed as:

(a – b) = a + [2’s complement(b)]

In General ……………….
 2’s Complement Subtraction
• Since the negative of any number is its two's
complement, the sum of a number and its
two's complement is always 0

• Add +12 and -12

+12 = 000011002
-12 = 111101002
0 000000002
 Binary Multiplication
• Multiplication can’t be that hard!
– It’s just repeated addition
– If we have adders, we can do multiplication also

• Remember that the AND operation is equivalent

to multiplication on two bits:
a b ab a b ab
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
 Binary multiplication example
1 1 0 1 Multiplicand
x 0 1 1 0 Multiplier

0 0 0 0 Partial products
1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
+ 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 Product

• Since we always multiply by either 0 or 1, the partial products

are always either 0000 or the multiplicand (1101 in this
example)

• There are four partial products which are added to form the
result
 Unsigned Multiplication

1 1 0 1
x 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 Add

Shift, then add

1 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 Shift

1 1 0 1 Shift, then add

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
 Signed Multiplication
1 1 1 1 (-1)10
x 0 0 0 1 (+1)10
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
X
(+15)10
 Signed Multiplication
Sign extended

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (-1)10
x 0 0 0 1 (+1)10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

(-1)10
Division of Unsigned Binary Integers

Q: Divide 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 by 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 Quotient

Divisor 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Dividend
1 0 1 1
Partial 0 0 1 1 1 0
Remainder 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Partial
Remainder 2 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 Remainder

Quotient = 1 1 0 1
Remainder = 1 0 0
 Module 1
1. Introduction
2. Number Systems
3. Binary Arithmetic
4. Logic Functions
5. Boolean Algebra
6. Minimization Techniques
 Logic
Functions
 Introductory Paragraph
• In its basic form, logic is the realm of human
reasoning that tells you a certain proposition
(declarative statement) is true if certain conditions
are true.

• Propositions can be classified as true or false.

• Many situations and processes that you encounter

in your daily life can be expressed in the form of
propositional, or logic, functions.

• Since such functions are true/false or yes/no

statements, digital circuits with their two-state
characteristics are applicable.
 Logic Functions
• Several propositions, when combined, form propositional,
or logic functions.
• For example, the propositional statement “The light is on”
will be true if the “The bulb is not burned out” is true and
if “The switch is on” is true.

• The first statement is then the basic proposition, and the

other two statements are the conditions on which the
proposition depends.
 Basis for digital computers.
• The true-false nature of logic
makes it compatible with binary
logic used in digital computers.
• Electronic circuits can produce
logic operations.
• Circuits are called gates.
– NOT
– AND
– OR
 Basic Logic Operations
• There are three basic logic operations: NOT, AND, and OR.

• Each of the three basic logic operations produces a unique

response (output) to a given set of conditions (inputs).

• The standard distinctive shape symbols for the three basic logic
operations are shown below.
 Logic Gates
• A circuit that performs a specified basic logic operation is
called a logic gate.
• Logic gates form the building blocks for digital systems.
• The true/false statements mentioned earlier are represented
by a HIGH (true) and a LOW (false).
• AND & OR gates can have any number of inputs.
 The AND operator
(both, all)

• rivers AND salinity

• dairy products AND export

AND Europe
 The OR operator
(either, any)

• fruit OR vegetables

• fruit OR vegetables OR cereal

 The NOT operator

• fruit NOT apples

 Let’s use logic to examine class.
• Please stand up if you are:
– girl
– AND black hair
– AND left handed
• Please stand up if you are:
– girl
– OR black hair
– OR left handed
• Please stand up if you are a girl NOT left handed
• How has the group changed depending on the logical
operator used.
 Nesting
• When more than one element is in parentheses, the
sequence is left to right. This is called "nesting."

– (foxes OR rabbits) AND pest control

– foxes OR rabbits AND pest control

– (animal pests OR pest animals) NOT rabbits

 Order of precedence of logic
operators

• The order of operations is: AND, NOT, OR

• Parentheses are used to override priority.

• Expressions in parentheses are processed first.

• Parentheses are used to organize the sequence

and groups of concepts.
 Write out logic statements using
logic operators for these.
• You have a buzzer in your car that sounds when
your keys are in the ignition and the door is open.
• You have a fire alarm installed in your house. This
alarm will sound if it senses heat or smoke.
• There is an election coming up. People are
allowed to vote if they are a citizen and they are
18.
• To complete an assignment the students must do
a presentation or write an essay.
 Truth Tables
• Truth tables provide a way to
describe the relationship between
inputs and outputs of a logic circuit.

• Typically, “A” is considered to be the

least significant variable in a truth
table.
 Timing Diagrams
• Timing diagrams also show relationships between
input and output conditions in a logic circuit.
Logic
Gates
 NOT gate
• The simplest possible gate is called an "inverter" or a NOT gate.

• One bit as input produces its opposite as output.

• The symbol for a NOT gate is shown below.

• The truth table for the NOT gate shows input and output.
A Q

0 1
A X
1 0
0 1
1 0
Inside NOT
Transistor Gate
as a Switch
Timing analysis of an inverter gate
 NOT gate application
A group of inverters can be used to form the 1’s complement of
a binary number

Binary number
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
1’s complement
 AND gate
• The AND gate has the following symbol and truth table.

• Two or more input bits produce one output bit.

• Both inputs must be true (1) for the output to be true.

• Otherwise the output is false (0).

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 AND gate
Multiple Input AND Gate
Inside the AND gate

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Timing analysis of an AND gate

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Timing analysis of 3 input AND gate
Timing analysis of 3 input AND gate
 AND Gate Application
The AND operation is used in computer programming as a
selective mask.
If you want to retain certain bits of a binary number but reset
the other bits to 0, you could set a mask with 1’s in the
position of the retained bits.

If the binary number 10100011 is ANDed

with the mask code - 00001111, what is the
result? 00000011
 AND Gate Application
 Application of the AND Gate for calculating frequency
 OR gate
• The OR gate has the following symbol and truth table.

• Two or more input bits produce one output bit.

• Either inputs must be true (1) for the output to be true.

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 OR gate
Multiple Input OR Gate
Inside the OR gate

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Timing analysis of OR gate

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Timing analysis of OR gate

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 OR Gate Application
OR operation can be used in computer programming to SET / RESET
certain bits of a binary number.

Example: ASCII letters have a 1 in the bit 5 position for all lower case
letters and a 0 in this position for all upper case letters.(Bit positions
are numbered from right to left starting with 0)

What will be the result if you OR an ASCII

letter with the 8-bit mask 00100000?

The resulting letter will be

lower case.
Basic AND & OR gate operation

OR =0 OR =1
0+0=0 0+1=1

AND =0 AND =1
1•0=0 1•1=1
Timing analysis of an AND gate
Logic analyzer display.
Using an AND gate to enable/disable a
clock oscillator.
Using an OR gate to enable/disable a
clock oscillator.
 An Example: A Burglar Alarm
• This circuit shows how the
elements discussed so far could be
used to build a burglar alarm.

• If any of the switches A or B or C

is ON and the Alarm SET switch, D
is ON then the Siren E is ON.

• This is written as :- E   A  B  C .D

 Combine gates.
• Gates can be combined.
• The output of one gate can become the input of another.
• Try to determine the logic table for this circuit.

p q Y = NOT((p AND q) OR q)
0 0 1
0 1 0
Y 1 0 1
1 1 0
Construct the logic table for these
circuits.
What happens when you add a
NOT to an AND gate?

“Not AND” = NAND

A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Symbols for 3 and 8-input NAND
gates.
Timing analysis of a NAND gate.
Timing analysis of a NAND gate.
What happens when you add a
NOT to an OR gate?

“Not OR” = NOR

A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
NOR gate timing analysis.
NOR gate timing analysis.
 NOR Gate Application
When is the LED is ON for the circuit shown?
+5.0 V

330 W

A
B X
C
D

The LED will be on when any of

the four inputs are HIGH.
 “Exclusive” gates
• There are 2 Exclusive Gates in Digital Electronics.

• Exclusively OR Gate and Exclusive NOR Gate

Exclusive OR Gate – XOR Gate

&

Exclusive NOR Gate – XNOR Gate

 XOR Gate
• Exclusive OR gate are true if either input is true but not both.

• The Symbol and Truth Table is shown below.

• Output will be high for different inputs

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
 XNOR Gate
• The Symbol and Truth Table is shown below.

• Output will be high for same inputs

A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Logic Gates
Review
NOT Operator
Y=A
AND Operator

Y=A B
OR Operator

Y=A+B
 NAND Operator

Y=A B
 NOR Operator

Y=A+B
Exclusive OR (XOR) Operator

Y=A+B
Exclusive NOR (XNOR) Operator

Y=A+B
 Universal Gates
• NAND Gate and NOR Gate are known as
Universal Gates.

• All other basic Gates can be constructed using

NAND or NOR Gates.
 Universal Gates

NOT gate from a NAND

A Q
A Q 0 1 A Q
1 0
 Universal Gates

AND gate from a NAND

A B Q

A 0 0 0 A
Q 0 1 0 Q
B B
1 0 0
1 1 1
 Universal Gates

OR gate from a NAND

We will study after proving

DE- MORGAN’S LAW
 Universal Gates

NOT gate from a NOR

A Q
A Q 0 1
1 0
 Universal Gates

AND gate from a NOR

We will study after proving

DE- MORGAN’S LAW
Universal Gates

OR gate from a NOR

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Logic Gates summary
Electronic 2 input Logic Gate ICs
Vcc 4B 4A 4Y 3B 3A 3Y Vcc 4Y 4B 4A 3Y 3B 3A
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1A 1B 1Y 2A 2B 2Y GND 1Y 1A 1B 2Y 2A 2B GND
7400:Y =AB 7402:
Y =A + B
Quadruple two-input NAND gates Quadruple two-input NOR gates

Vcc 6A 6Y 5A 5Y 4A 4Y Vcc 4B 4A 4Y 3B 3A 3Y
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1A 1Y 2A 2Y 3A 3Y GND 1A 1B 1Y 2A 2B 2Y GND
7404:Y =A 7408:Y =AB
Hex inverters Quadruple two-input AND gates
Electronic 2 input Logic Gate ICs
Electronic 3 input Logic Gate ICs
Vcc 1C 1Y 3C 3B 3A 3Y Vcc 2D 2C NC 2B 2A 2Y
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1A 1B 2A 2B 2C 2Y GND 1A 1B NC 1C 1D 1Y GND
7410:Y =ABC 7420:Y =ABCD
Triple three-input NAND gates Dual four-input NAND gates
Electronic 8 input Logic Gate IC
 Selected Key Terms
Inverter A logic circuit that inverts or complements its inputs.

Truth table A table showing the inputs and corresponding output(s) of a

logic circuit.

Timing diagram A diagram of waveforms showing the proper time

relationship of all of the waveforms.

Boolean The mathematics of logic circuits.

algebra

AND gate A logic gate that produces a HIGH output only when all of its
inputs are HIGH.
 Selected Key Terms
OR gate A logic gate that produces a HIGH output when one or more
inputs are HIGH.

NAND gate A logic gate that produces a LOW output only when all of its
inputs are HIGH.

NOR gate A logic gate that produces a LOW output when one or more
inputs are HIGH.

Exclusive-OR A logic gate that produces a HIGH output only when its two
gate inputs are at opposite levels.

Exclusive-NOR A logic gate that produces a LOW output only when its two
gate inputs are at opposite levels.
 Class Question:
Basic Components
AND NAND OR NOR XOR XNOR NOT
Name and
Symbol
A out
B

Truth AB out
00 0
table 01 0
10 0
11 1

Notation A·B=out
1. The truth table for a 2-input AND gate is

Inputs Output Inputs Output

A B X A B X
a. 0 0 0 b. 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0

Inputs Output Inputs Output

A B X A B X
0 0 0 0 0 0
c. 0 1 0 d. 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2. The truth table for a 2-input NOR gate is

Inputs Output Inputs Output

A B X A B X
a. 0 0 0 b. 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0

Inputs Output Inputs Output

A B X A B X
0 0 0 0 0 0
c. 0 1 0 d. 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
3. The truth table for a 2-input XOR gate is

Inputs Output Inputs Output

A B X A B X
a. 0 0 0 b. 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0

Inputs Output Inputs Output

A B X A B X
0 0 0 0 0 0
c. 0 1 0 d. 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
 A ≥1
4. The symbol B
X is for which gate

a. OR gate
b. AND gate
c. NOR gate
d. XOR gate
 A
5. The symbol B X is for which gate

a. OR gate
b. AND gate
c. NOR gate
d. XOR gate
6. A logic gate that produces a HIGH output only when all of
its inputs are HIGH

a. OR gate
b. AND gate
c. NOR gate
d. NAND gate
7. The expression X = A + B means
a. A OR B
b. A AND B
c. A XOR B
d. A XNOR B
8. A 2-input gate produces the output shown. (X represents
the output)

a. OR gate
b. AND gate
c. NOR gate
d. NAND gate
9. A 2-input gate produces a HIGH output only when the
inputs agree.

a. OR gate
b. AND gate
c. NOR gate
d. XNOR gate
Answers:
1. c 6. b
2. b 7. c
3. a 8. d
4. a 9. d
5. d
 Logic Gate Characteristics
1. Gate Voltages and Currents
2. Fan – in
3. Fan – out
4. Propagation Delay
5. Power Requirements
6. Noise Margin or Noise Immunity
7. Speed – Power Product (SPP)
 Gate Voltages and Currents
• VIH (min) – High level input voltage. The minimum level
required for a logical 1 at an input. Any voltage below
this level will not be accepted as a HIGH by the logic
circuit

• VIL (max) – The maximum input voltage for logic zero

• VOH (min) – The minimum voltage level at a logic circuit

output in the logic 1 state under defined load conditions
 Gate Voltages and Currents
• VOL (max) – Low level output voltage. The maximum
voltage level at a logic circuit output in the logical 0 state
under defined load conditions

• IIH – High level input current. The current that flows into
an input when a specified high level voltage is applied to
that input

• IIL – Low level input current. The current that flows into
an input when a specified low level voltage is applied to
that input
 Gate Voltages and Currents
• IOH – High level output current. The current that flows
from an output when a specified high level voltage is
obtained at that output

• IOL – Low level output current. The current that flows

from an output when a specified low level voltage is
obtained at that output
Gate Voltages and Currents
1. VIH (min) – High level input voltage
2. VIL (max) – Low level input voltage
3. VOH (min) – High level output voltage
4. VOL (max) – Low level output voltage
5. IIH – High level input current
6. IIL – Low level input current
7. IOH – High level output current
8. IOL – Low level output current
Gate Voltages and Currents
 Fan - in
• Fan-in specifies the number of inputs available on a gate.

• Gate primitives often limit the number of inputs to 4 or 5.

• To build gates with lower fan-in, multiple gates can be

interconnected.

Implementation of a 7-input NAND gate using

NAND gates with 4 or fewer inputs.
 Fan - in
 Fan-in – the number of inputs to the gate
 gates with large fan-in are bigger and slower
 Fan out
• Also known as loading factor

• Defined as the maximum number of logic

inputs that an output can drive reliably

• A logic circuit that specify to have 10 fan out

can drive 10 logic inputs
 Fan out
The inverter has a fan-out of 3 (i.e., the inverter drives 3 inputs).
 Fan out
Fanout is the number of standard loads that the output can drive.

The number of standard loads is limited by the amount of input

current each load requires as compared to the current that the
driving gate can deliver.

Fanout, therefore, is generally considered to be the smaller of the

following two items:

IOL (max) IOH (max)

fanout = or fanout =
I IL (max) I IH (max)
 Propagation Delay
 Every logic gate experiences some delay (though very small) in
propagating signals forward from input to output.
 This delay is called Gate (Propagation) Delay.
 Formally, it is the average transition time taken for the output
signal of the gate to change in response to changes in the
input signals.
 Three different propagation delay times associated with a
logic gate:
 tPHL: output changing from the High level to Low level

 tPLH: output changing from the Low level to High level

 tPD=(tPLH + tPHL)/2 (average propagation delay)

 Propagation Delay
 tPHL: output changing from the High level to Low level
 tPLH: output changing from the Low level to High level
 tPD=(tPLH + tPHL)/2 (average propagation delay)
 Propagation Delay

 Ideally, there will not be  In reality, output signals

any delay. normally lag behind input
signals.
 Propagation Delay

A glitch in the output of the AND

gate caused by propagation delay
in the inverter.

Note that we have assumed zero

delay for the AND gate.
 Calculation of Circuit Delays
 Amount of propagation delay per gate depends on:
 (i) gate type (AND, OR, NOT, etc)
 (ii) transistor technology used (TTL,ECL,CMOS etc),
 (iii) miniaturisation (SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI)

 Propagation delay of logic circuit

= longest time it takes for the input signal(s) to propagate to
the output(s).
= earliest time for output signal(s) to stabilise, given that
input signals are stable at time 0.
 Calculation of Circuit Delays
 In general, given a logic gate with delay, t.

If inputs are stable at times t1,t2,..,tn, respectively; then the

earliest time in which the output will be stable is:
max(t1, t2, .., tn) + t

 To calculate the delays of all outputs of a combinational

circuit, repeat above rule for all gates.
 Calculation of Circuit Delays
 As a simple example, consider the full adder circuit where
all inputs are available at time 0. (Assume each gate has
delay t.)

where outputs S and C, experience delays of 2t

and 3t, respectively.
 Power Requirements
• Every IC need a certain power requirement to
operate

• This power supply comes from the voltage supply

that connected to the pin on the chip labeled VCC

• The amount of power require by ICs is determined by

the current that it draws from the VCC

• The actual power is ICC x VCC

 Power Requirements

ICC(avg) = (ICCH + ICCL)/2

PD(avg) = ICC(avg) X Vcc

 Noise Margin or Immunity
• Stray electric and magnetic fields can induce voltages on
the connecting wires between logic circuits – this unwanted
signal called noise

• These cause the input signal to a logic circuit drop below

VIH (min) or rise above VIL (max)

• Noise Margin or Noise Immunity refers to the circuit’s

ability to tolerate noise without causing spurious changes
in the output voltage
 Noise Margin
Below given is a diagram showing the range of voltages that can occur at a logic circuit output.
 Noise Margin
• The high state noise margin VNH is defined as
VNH = VOH (min) – VIH (min)

• The low state noise margin VNL is defined as

VNL = VIL (max) – VOL (max)
 Speed – Power Product

• Product of Propagation Delay and Power of a

Digital IC

SPP = Propagation delay X Power

• Also known as Power – Delay Product.

• Helps measure quality of a logic family.

 Module 1
1. Introduction
2. Number Systems
3. Binary Arithmetic
4. Logic Functions
5. Boolean Algebra
6. Minimization Techniques
Boolean
Algebra
George Boole
My name is George Boole and I lived in
England in the 19th century. My work on
mathematical logic, algebra, and the
binary number system has had a unique
influence upon the development of
computers. Boolean Algebra is named
after me.
What is Boolean Algebra ?
Boolean Algebra is a mathematical technique that provides the
ability to algebraically simplify logic expressions.

These simplified expressions will result in a logic circuit that is

equivalent to the original circuit, yet requires fewer gates.
Boolean Theorems (1 of 7)
Single Variable - AND Function
Theorem #1 Theorem #2 Theorem #3 Theorem #4
X0  0 X 1 X XX X XX 0

X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Boolean Theorems (2 of 7)
Single Variable - OR Function
Theorem #5 Theorem #6 Theorem #7 Theorem #8
X0 X X  1 1 XXX X  X 1

X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Boolean Theorems (3 of 7)
Single Variable – Invert (NOT) Function

Theorem #9

XX

X X X
0 1 0
1 0 1
Summary of Theorems (1,2 & 3 of 7)
AND Function OR Function NOT Function
Theorem #1 Theorem #5 Theorem #9
X0  0 X0 X
XX
Theorem #2 Theorem #6
X 1 X X  1 1
Theorem #3 Theorem #7
XX X XXX
Theorem #4 Theorem #8
XX 0 X  X 1
Example #1: Boolean Algebra
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the
Boolean theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP
form.

F1  A A B  C C D

SOP – Sum Of Product (Sum of MINTERMS)

Y = AB + BC

POS – Product Of Sum (Product of MAXTERMS)

Y = (A+B) (B+C)
Example #1: Boolean Algebra
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the
Boolean theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP
form.

F1  A A B  C C D
Solution
F1  A A B  C C D
F1  A B  C C D ; Theorem #3
F1  A B  0 D ; Theorem #4

F1  A B  0 ; Theorem #1

F1  A B ; Theorem #5
F1  A B
Example #2: Boolean Algebra
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the
Boolean theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP
form.
F2  B B C  B C C  A B 1  A B 0
Example #2: Boolean Algebra
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the
Boolean theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP
form.
F2  B B C  B C C  A B 1  A B 0
Solution
F2  B B C  B C C  A B 1  A B 0
F2  B C  B C  A B 1  A B 0 ; Theorem #3 (twice)
F2  BC  A B 1  A B 0 ; Theorem #7
F2  BC  A B  A B 0 ; Theorem #2
F2  BC AB  0 ; Theorem #1

F2  BC AB ; Theorem #5

F2  B C  A B
Boolean Theorems (4 of 7)
Commutative Law

Theorem #10A – AND Function

X Y  Y  X
Boolean Theorems (4 of 7)
Commutative Law

Theorem #10B – OR Function

X YY X
Boolean Theorems (5 of 7)
Associative Law

Theorem #11A – AND Function

X (Y Z)  (X Y) Z
Boolean Theorems (5 of 7)
Associative Law

Theorem #11B – OR Function

X  (Y  Z)  (X  Y)  Z
Boolean Theorems (6 of 7)
Distributive Law

Theorem #12A – AND Function

X (Y  Z)  X Y  X Z
Boolean Theorems (6 of 7)
Distributive Law

Theorem #12B – OR Function

( X  Y)(W  Z)  XW  XZ  YW YZ
Example #3: Boolean Algebra
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the
Boolean theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP
form.
F3  R T  (R  S)(R  T)
Example #3: Boolean Algebra
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the
Boolean theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP
form.
F3  R T  (R  S)(R  T)

Solution
 
F3  R T  R  S R  T 
F3  R T  R R  R T  S R  S T ; Theorem #12B
F3  R T  0  R T  S R  S T ; Theorem #4

F3  R T  R T  S R  S T ; Theorem #5


F3  T R  R  S  S R ; Theorem #12A

F3  T 1  S   S R ; Theorem #8

F3  T1  S R ; Theorem #6

F3  T  S R ; Theorem #2
Boolean Theorems (7 of 7)
Consensus Theorem

Theorem #13A Theorem #13C

XXYXY XXYXY

Theorem #13B Theorem #13D

XXYXY XXYXY
Example #4: Boolean Algebra
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the
Boolean theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP
form.
F4  P S  P Q S  P Q S
Example #4: Boolean Algebra
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the
Boolean theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP
form.
F4  P S  P Q S  P Q S
Solution
F4  P S  P Q S  P Q S
 
F4  P S  Q S  P Q S ; Theorem #12A
F4  P S  Q   P Q S ; Theorem #13C

F4  P S  PQ  P Q S ; Theorem #12A

F4  PS 1  Q   P Q ; Theorem #12A

F4  PS 1   P Q ; Theorem #6

F4  PS  P Q ; Theorem #2
Augustus DeMorgan
My name is Augustus DeMorgan. I’m an
Englishman born in India in 1806. I was
instrumental in the advancement of
mathematics and am best known for the logic
theorems that bear my name.
P.S. George Boolean gets WAY too much credit.
He has more theorems, but mine are WAY
Cooler!
DeMorgan’s Theorems
DeMorgan’s Theorems are two additional simplification
techniques that can be used to simplify Boolean
expressions.
Again, the simpler the Boolean expression, the simpler
the resulting logic.
DeMorgan’s Theorem #1
A B  A  B

Proof
A B A B

A B A B A B A B A B A B
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
The truth-tables are equal; therefore, the
Boolean equations must be equal.
DeMorgan’s Theorem #2
A  B  A B
Proof
A B A B

A B A B A B A B A B A B
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
The truth-tables are equal; therefore, the
Boolean equations must be equal.
DeMorgan Shortcut
BREAK THE LINE, CHANGE THE SIGN
Break the LINE over the two variables,
and change the SIGN directly under the line.

A B  A  B For Theorem #14A, break the line, and change the

AND function to an OR function. Be sure to keep
the lines over the variables.

A  B  A B For Theorem #14B, break the line, and change the

OR function to an AND function. Be sure to keep
the lines over the variables.
DeMorgan’s Theorems
In other words

NAND = bubbled OR

NOR = bubbled AND

AND Gate using NOR Gate
OR Gate using NAND Gates
 Summary
Boolean & DeMorgan’s Theorems
1) X 0  0 10A) X Y  Y  X Commutative
10B) X YY X Law
2) X 1 X
11A) XYZ   XY Z Associative
AND
3) XX X 11B) X  Y  Z    X  Y   Z Law
4) XX0 12A) XY  Z   XY  XZ Distributive
12B) X  Y W  Z   XW  XZ  YW  YZ Law
5) X0 X
13A) X  XY  X  Y
6) X  1 1 13B) X  XY  X  Y Consensus
OR
7) XXX 13C) X  XY  X  Y Theorem

8) X  X 1 13D) X  XY  X  Y
14A) XYXY DeMorgan’s
9) XX NOT
Theorem
14B) XYX Y
DeMorgan’s: Example #1
Example
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the Boolean or
DeMorgan’s theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP form.

F1  ( X  Y )  ( Y  Z)
DeMorgan’s: Example #1
Example
Simplify the following Boolean expression and note the Boolean or
DeMorgan’s theorem used at each step. Put the answer in SOP form.

F1  ( X  Y )  ( Y  Z)

Solution

F1  ( X  Y )  ( Y  Z )

F1  ( X  Y )  ( Y  Z ) ; Theorem #14A

F1  ( X  Y )  ( Y  Z ) ; Theorem #9 & #14B

F1  ( X  Y )  ( Y  Z ) ; Theorem #9
F1  X Y  Y Z ; Rewritten without AND symbols
and parentheses
DeMorgan’s: Example #2
Example
Simplify the output function F2 shown in the logic circuit. Be sure to
note the Boolean or DeMorgan’s theorem used at each step. Put
the answer in SOP form.
DeMorgan’s: Example #2
Solution

F 2  ( X  Z )( XY )

F 2  ( X  Z )  ( XY ) ; Theorem #14A

F 2  ( X  Z )  ( XY ) ; Theorem #9

F 2  ( X Z )  ( XY ) ; Theorem #14B

F 2  ( X Z )  ( XY ) ; Theorem #9

F2  X Z  X Y ; Rewritten without AND symbols

 Module 1
1. Introduction
2. Number Systems
3. Binary Arithmetic
4. Logic Functions
5. Boolean Algebra
6. Minimization Techniques
Minimization
Techniques
Minimization Techniques

1. Karnaugh Map

2. Queen Mclusky Method

 Karnaugh Map (K Map)
• 2 Variable K Map

• 3 Variable K Map

• 4 Variable K Map
 2 Variable Karnaugh map.

a b f (a,b)
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
 K-map for f(a, b) = ab + ab’.

a b f (a,b)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1
K-map solution for f(a, b) = ab + ab’.

a b f (a,b)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1
K-map solution for f(a, b) = ab + ab’ + a’b’.
K-map solution for f(a, b) = ab’ + a’b.
3 Variable K Map
3 variable K-map
 K-map solution for Equation
ab’c’+ab’c+abc+a’b’c+a’bc+a’bc’
 K-map for Equation
f(x,y,z) = x’y’z’+x’y’z+x’yz+xy’z
 K-map for Equation
f(x,y,z) = x’y’z’+x’y’z+x’yz+xy’z
 Solution of Equation
f(a,b,c) = a’bc+ab’c’+abc+abc’

302
 4 Variable Karnaugh map
a b c d f (a,b,c,d)
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
 f(a,b,c,d) =
a’b’c’d’+a’b’cd’+abc’d’+abc’d+abcd+abcd’+ab’c’d’+ab’c’d+ab’cd+ab’cd’
a b c d f (a,b,c,d)
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
 K-map with don’t cares
a b c d f (a,b,c,d)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 X
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 X
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 X
 Representations of Boolean Functions

x y z f • Algebraic expressions
0 0 0 0 x
– f( x, y, z ) = xy+z
0 0 1 1 y z
0 1 0 0 • Tabular forms
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 • Venn diagrams
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
• Cubical representations
1 1 1 1
Cubical Representation
Cubical Representation
0-cube in cubic notation
z

01 11

10

00 10 x
0-cube by product terms
z

01 11

x z’

00 10 x
0-cube in cubic notation
z
011

111
001 101
y
010 110

000 100 x
0-cube by product terms
z 111
011

xyz
001 101
y
010 110

000 100 x
1-cube in cubic notation
z
011 111

001 101
1_0
y
010 110

000 100 x
1-cube by product terms
z
011 111

001 101
xz’
y
010 110

000 100 x
2-cube in cubic notation
z
011 111

001 101
y
010 _0_ 110

000 100 x
2-cube by product terms
z
011 111

001 101
y
010 Y’ 110

000 100 x
 Cubical Representation of Minterms and
Implicants
• f1 = a’b’c’+a’b’c+ab’c+abc+abc’
• f2 = a’b’c+ab’c
 Cubical representation of minterms
• f1 = a’b’c’ + a’b’c + ab’c + abc +abc’
α β γ δ

• f2 = a’b’c + ab’c
β
111

γ
β 101 β
001 001
δ
101

α 110
b
c
000
a f1 f2
 Implicants
• IMPLICANT: An implicant of a function is a product term
that is included in the function.

• PRIME IMPLICANT: An implicant is prime if it cannot be

included in any other implicants.

• ESSENTIAL PRIME IMPLICANT: A prime implicant is

essential if it is the only one that includes a minterm.
 Implicants
Example: f(x,y,z) = xy’ + yz

xy(not I), xyz(I, not PI), xz(PI,not EPI), yz(EPI)

Exact Minimization of Two-Level Logic

• Quine-McClusky
(1) generate all primes
(2) find a minimum cover
Quine-McClusky
(1) generate all primes
( utilize AB+AB’=A(B+B’)=A )
f = Sm( 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13 ) + d( 0, 7, 15 )

0000 0-00 01--

0100 -000 -1-1
1000 010-
0101 01-0
0110 100-
1001 10-0
1010 01-1
0111 -101
1101 011-
1111 1-01
-111
11-1
Quine-McClusky
(2) select a subset of primes
f ( x, y, z, w ) = x’z’w’+ y’z’w’ + xy’z’ +
xy’w’ + xz’w + x’y+yw
=> the selected sum for f is
f ( x, y, z, w ) = xy’w’ + xz’w + x’y

A subset of implicant is a cover of the function if each

minterm for which the function is 1 is included in at least
one implicant of the subset.