2.

EARTHQUAKES
Shaking of the earth’s surface caused by sudden release of energy
stored in the rocks beneath earth’s surface is called an earthquake.
Earthquake Hazard:
This term is associated with an earthquake that may effect the normal
activities of people. This includes surface faulting, ground shaking,
landslides, liquefaction, tectonic deformation, tsunamis etc.
Earthquake Risk:
This term denotes the probable damage to buildings and other
structures. The expected number of people and cattle population to
be hurt or killed if an earthquake occurs.
 Causes of Earth Quake:
• Tectonic forces acting deep in the earth may put a stress in the rocks.
It bends and change the shape of rocks. When these rocks break,
waves of energy are released and sent out through the earth. These
seismic waves cause to shake the ground during earthquake.
• Volcanic activity can also cause earthquake.
• Movement of plates (plate tectonics) may also cause earth quake.
 PLATE TECTIONICS
• The entire earth surface is composed of several rigid but relatively
thin plates. These plates are 100-150 km. thick. They carry both
continental and oceanic crust. They are continuously in motion
with respect to each other. These plates can be thought like
cracked shell on a boiled egg.
• The plates vary in size. There are about 20 crustal plates on the
earth’s surface. Seven are very large. . The large plates are:
(i) The North American Plate (ii) The South American Plate
(iii) The Eurasian Plate (iv) The African Plate
(v) The indo-Australian Plate (vi) The Pacific Plate
(vii) The Antarctic Plate
• These plates slide over a partially molten plastic layer beneath the
earth surface called the “Asthenosphere”
Tectonic Plates
Major Plates
 Plate Boundaries and Plate Movement
Almost all seismicity, volcanicity and tectonic activity is localized
around plate margins. Depending upon relative motions of adjacent
plates, Plate boundaries are classified in to three groups:
• Divergent.
Plates moves apart which result in creation of new ocean floor with
submarine volcanoes, mid-oceanic ridge and small to moderate
earthquakes.
• Convergent:
Plate move towards each other resulting destruction of ocean floor,
creation and growth of mountain range with volcanoes, subduction
zones. Earth’s greatest earthquake and tsunamis.
• Transform:
Plates moves sideways past each other. It causes no creation or
destruction of crust and results small to large earthquake.
(i) Focus:
The point within the earth where seismic waves first originate is
called “Focus”. This is centre of earthquake.
(ii) Epicenter
The point on the earth surface directly above the focus is called
epicenter.
Focus and Epicenter of Earthquake
 Classification of Earthquakes
(a) Shallow focus Earth quake
Focus ranges between 0-70 km. These EQ are large and more
dangerous as they are closer to the surface of earth. They are more
common and occur near plate boundaries. They account for 85% of
total energy.
(b) Intermediate Focus Earthquake
Depth 70-350 km and account 12% .Causes less damage as
compared to shallow focus EQ.
(c) Deep Focus Earthquake
Focus range between 350-670 km. These occur in subduction
zones. Cause less damage and are 3% of the total because most
deep rocks flow and deformed when stressed.
 Seismic Waves
Two types of seismic waves are generated during earthquakes:
• Body waves
• Surface Waves
• Body waves:-These are seismic waves that travel through the earth’s interior,
spreading outward from the focus in all directions. These are of two types:-
(i) P- Waves (Primary waves)
It is compressional or longitudinal wave in which rock vibrates back and forth
parallel to the direction of wave propagation. These are very fast (4 to 7km/sec)
and first to arrive at a recording station after earthquake occurrence.
(ii) S-Waves(Secondary waves)
It is shear wave and the rock vibrates perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation .These are slower than P-waves (2 to 5 km/sec) in near surface
rocks. Both P-waves and S-waves pass easily through solid rocks. P-wave can
pass through a liquid, but an S-wave cannot pass through liquid.
• Surface waves:
Surface waves are the slowest waves generated by the earth quake. These are
high amplitude waves and in general cause most property damage because
they move slowly and take more time to pass.
There are two types of surface waves:
(i) Love waves
Love waves are like S-waves. The ground moves side to side i.e. perpendicular
to the direction the wave is travelling or propagating. Like S-Waves Love waves
cannot pass through liquid and cannot be felt upon a water body. These waves
knock the building off their foundations and may destroy highway bridge
support.

(ii) Rayleigh waves

These behave like rolling ocean waves and cause the ground to move in an
elliptical direction of wave passage. Rayleigh waves are the most destructive to
buildings because they produce more ground movement and take much time
to pass through. These are received latest at recording stations.
Types of Seismic Waves
Characterization of Ground Motion
The strong ground motion is associated with the following phenomena,
which can cause serious damage and loss of life:
• Surface Faulting
• Tectonic Uplift
• Landslides
• Quick Clays
• Liquefaction
Surface Faulting:
Surface faulting is the offset or tearing of the earth`s surface by
differential movement of a fracture caused by deep seated forces in the
earth. A variety of structures, which get damaged, include buildings,
highways, railways, tunnels, bridges, canals, storm drains, water wells,
water channels, electricity, gas and sewer lines.
Tectonic Uplift:
Regional uplift and sinking may occur due to earthquakes that are
caused by larger displacements on a shallow buried fault. This
particularly occurs during reverse or thrust faulting. Regional tectonic
deformation create large hazards to shoreline installation and extensive
hydraulic systems when broad-scale changes in land elevation occur
relative to water level.
Landslides:
A landslides occurs when mass of the earth moves along a slope or a
slip under the influence of gravity. The stability of earthen material on a
slope depend upon the balance between the mass of slope material
and the resisting force of the shear strength of the slope material.
Earthquake shaking may move rock and debris on steep slopes
triggering rock falls, avalanches and slides. These slides may block the
roads and damage civil structures built along hill slopes. Landslides may
sometimes artificially dam the rivers to form the lakes and may cause
large damages downstream on account of overflowing or bursting of
such lakes.
Quick Clays:
In general, clays lose shear-strength when disturbed by ground shaking.
Shaking of the ground by earthquake causes loss of strength in
sensitive clay layers and result in major landslides.
Liquefaction:
Liquefaction is a physical process that occurs during some earthquakes,
which may lead to ground-failure. In liquefaction, clay-free soil
deposits, primarily sand and silt temporarily lose strength and behave
like viscous fluid rather as solid. Liquefaction occurs under certain
geologic and hydrologic conditions, mainly where sand and silt have got
deposited recently and water table is within 10 meters of the surface.
Structures founded on such material can settle, tip or be ripped apart
as the ground spreads laterally.
 Effects of Earth Quake
• Destroy man-made structures.
• Roads are subsided.
• Fire after an earth quake due to broken gas pipe lines.
• Shortage of drinking water due to broken pipe lines.
• Landslides occur and block path of streams, roads and produce
artificial lakes.
• Tsunami affects coastal areas.
• Earthquakes can damage Dams, Bridges, Railway lines, Roads and
dismantle irrigation system.
Effects of Earthquakes
Bridge and Road Damage
Railway bent after E.Q. Fire after E.Q.
Tsunami Wave(Japan) Land Slides Muzafarabad E.Q.
Before the Earthquake
•Become aware of fire evacuation and earthquake plans for all of the
buildings you occupy regularly.
• Pick safe places in each room of your home, workplace and/or
school. A safe place could be under a piece of furniture or against an
interior wall. Stay away from windows, bookcases or tall furniture
that could fall on you.
• Practice drop, cover and hold on in each safe place. If you do not
have strong furniture to hold on to, sit on the floor next to an interior
wall and cover your head and neck with your arms.
• Keep a flashlight and hard shoes by each person’s bed.
•Make sure your home is securely anchored to its foundation.
• Bolt and brace water heaters and gas appliances to wall studs.
• Bolt bookcases, cabinets and other tall furniture to wall studs.
• Hang heavy items, such as pictures and mirrors, away from beds,
couches and anywhere people sleep or sit.
• Brace overhead light fixtures.
• Install strong latches or bolts on cabinets. Large or heavy items
should be closest to the floor.
• Learn how to shut off the gas valves in your home and keep a wrench
handy for that purpose.
 Precautions to Reduce Earthquake Effects
Damage and loss caused by earth quakes can be reduced if civil
structures are built considering effects of earth quakes:
• Siting of structures on solid bed rocks or dense soils.
• Following strict seismic building codes may reduce the risk of loss
caused by earth quakes.
• Regional tectonic history studies and engineering design following
this history in an area may reduce losses.
• Before designing civil engineering structures proper geological
studies may reduce the seismic risk.
• Building height and mass be designed keeping in view the tectonic
forces and subsurface strata of the area.
During the Earthquake
If you are inside when the shaking starts:
• Drop, cover and hold on. Move as little as possible.
• If you are in bed, stay there, curl up and hold on. Protect your head
with a pillow.
• Stay away from windows to avoid being injured by shattered glass.
• Stay indoors until the shaking stops and you are sure it is safe to exit.
If you must leave the building after the shaking stops, use stairs rather
than an elevator in case there are aftershocks.
• Be aware that fire alarms and sprinkler systems frequently go off in
buildings during an earthquake, even if there is no fire.
If you are outside when the shaking starts:
• Find a clear spot and drop to the ground. Stay there until the shaking
stops (away from buildings, power lines, trees, streetlights).
• If you are in a vehicle, pull over to a clear location and stop. Avoid
bridges, overpasses and power lines if possible. Stay inside with your
seatbelt fastened until the shaking stops. Then, drive carefully,
avoiding bridges and ramps that may have been damaged.
• If a power line falls on your vehicle, do not get out. Wait for
assistance.
• If you are in a mountainous area or near unstable slopes or cliffs, be
alert for falling rocks and other debris. Landslides are often triggered
by earthquakes.
After an Earthquake
• After an earthquake, the disaster may continue. Expect and prepare
for potential aftershocks, landslides or even a tsunami. Tsunamis are
often generated by earthquakes.
• Each time you feel an aftershock, drop, cover and hold on.
Aftershocks frequently occur minutes, days, weeks and even months
following an earthquake. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid, if
necessary, before helping injured or trapped persons.
• Put on long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, hard shoes and working
gloves to protect against injury from broken objects.
• Look quickly for damage in and around your home and get everyone
out if your home is unsafe.
• Listen to a portable, battery-operated or hand-crank radio for
updated emergency information and instructions.
• Check the telephones in your home or workplace to see if you can get
a dial tone. Make brief calls to report life-threatening emergencies.
• Look for and extinguish small fires. Fire is the most common hazard
after an earthquake.
• Clean up spilled medications, bleach, gasoline or other flammable
liquids immediately.
• Open closet and cabinet doors carefully as contents may have
shifted.
• Help people who require special assistance, such as infants, children
and the elderly or disabled.
• Watch out for fallen power lines or broken gas lines and stay out of
damaged areas. Keep animals under your direct control.
• Stay out of damaged buildings.
• If you were away from home, return only when authorities say it is
safe to do so. Use extreme caution and examine walls, floors, doors,
staircases and windows to check for damage. Stay out of damaged
buildings.
• Be careful when driving after an earthquake and anticipate traffic
lights problems.