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INTRODUCTION

Although popular press dental journals have occasionally


promoted “metal free” dentistry as desirable , the metals remain
the only clinically proven materials for many long term dental
applications.

Although the use of cast metals has decreased in recent years


because of increased consumer demand for esthetics over
durability , a knowledge of the structure and properties of cast
metals and alloys is essential to ensure proper handling of this
materials in clinical practice.

Furthermore, cast metals are used as copings or substructures for


metal-ceramic restorations, the most common crown and bridge
prosthesis and most durable of all esthetic restoration, especially
when used to restore posterior teeth.
CHEMICAL AND ATOMIC
STRUCTURE OF METALS
 The Metals Hand Book (1992) defines a metal as “an opaque lusturous
chemical substance that is good conductor of heat and electricity ,and
when polished , is a good reflector of light.”
 Of the 115 elements currently listed in most recent version of periodic
tables of elements, about 81 can be classified as metals.
 Metals are usually-hard, lusturous,dense, good conductor of heat and
electricity,opaque, ductile and malleable.
 Metals are electropositive , that is , they give positive ions in solution.
 Metals usually have crystalline structures in the solid state. When a
molten metal or alloy is cooled, the solidification process is one of
crystallization and is initiated at specific sites called nuclei.
 Crystals grow as dendrites, which can be described as three-
dimensional,branched network structures emanating from the central
nucleus.
Crystal growth continues until all the material has solidified and all
the dendritic crystals are in contact.Each crystals is known as a grain
and the area between two grains in contact is the grain boundary.
The atoms within each grain are arranged in a three dimensional
lattice .
Although there is a tendency towards a perfect crystal structure ,
occasional defects occur. Such defects are normally called
dislocation.
When the material is placed under a sufficiently high stress the
dislocation is able to move through the lattice until it reaches a grain
boundary.The plane along which the dislocation moves is called a
slip plane .
Grain boundaries form a natural barrier to the movement of
dislocations.The concentration of grain boundaris increases as the
grain size decreases.Metals with finer grain structure are generally
harder and higher values of elastic limit than those with coarser grain
structure.Hence it can be seen that material properties can be
controlled to some extent by controlling the grain size.
 Adjacent grains have different orientations , because the initial nuclei
acted independently from each other .Thus at the grain boundary – a
narrow region 2 to 3 atomic diameters wide , the atoms take up
positions intermediate between those of the atoms in the adjacent
lattices.

The good electrical and thermal conductivity of metals occurs because


of mobility of valence electrons in the crystal lattice.

 Thecorrosion properties of metals depend on the ability of atomic


centres and electrons to be released in exchange of energy.

 Likethe physical properties , the mechanical properties are also a


result of the metallic crystal structure and metallic bonds.
ALLOYS AND PRINCIPLES
OF METALLURGY
An alloy is a substance composed of two or more elements at least
one of which is a metal, possess metallic properties and holds
metallic bonds.

DEFINITION:-A crystalline substance with metallic properties


that is composed of two or more chemical elements , at least one
of which is metal.

Alloys may be classified as binary (2 constituents) , ternary (3


constituents ) , quaternary(4 constituents) etc.

Usually, the properties of an alloy relate more directly to the


atomic percentage rather than weight percentage of each
element.
ALLOY
MICROSTRUCTURE
When a molten metal is cooled , the first solid alloy particles form as the
temperature reaches the liquidus . This process is called nucleation .
 In some alloys , fine particles of a high – melting point element such as Ir are
added to encourage nucleation throughout the alloy. As cooling continues , the
nuclei grow into crystals called grains , and the grains enlarge until all of the
liquid is gone and the grains meet and form boundaries between each other (at the
solidus temperature).
 The size of the grains depends on the cooling rate , alloy composition , presence
of grain refiners , and other factors . Grain size may influence an alloy’s strength ,
workability , and even susceptibility to corrosion.
 Dendrites result from grains that grow along major axes of the crystal lattice early
in the freezing process. The dendritic skeleton structure persists to room
temperature if the cooling rate of the alloy is too fast to allow equilibrium to
occur. Dendritic structure indicates that the alloy is not at equilibrium and its
presence can increase the corrosion of the alloy.
 A slow cooling rate and few impurities generally lead to large grains .Faster
cooling rates or the presence of grain refiners lead to smaller grains . Grains that
are uniform in size and shape throughout the alloy are described as equiaxed .
 Fine – grained (equiaxed) alloys are generally more desirable for dental
applications because they have more uniform properties.
 Different phases of a multi-phase alloy may also be seen in cast microstructure.
 The microscopic appearance of a cast metal is crystalline and sometimes has
dendritic structure.When the metal is subjected to cold working , such as drawing
into a wire , the grains are broken down, entangled in each other , and elongated to
develop a fibrous structure .
 During the formation of wrought structure , the original grains produced during the
crystallization of original casting are deformed and broken into small units .The
deformation of the metal mass occurs by slippage of one portion past another along
definite crystallization planes. The deformation and slippage occur in various
directions to distort the grain boundaries.The greater the cold working the greater is
the degree of grain boundary deformation .
 This deformed structure is unstable in nature , with
greater internal energy than one that is in the cast
condition. Accordingly , it possesses modified physical
properties and has the tendency to recrystallize when
heated.The characteristic fibrous structure of the
wrought mass is gradually lost, and the grains or
crystalline structure reappears. This process is known as
recrystallization or grain growth. The cause for grain
growth in the wrought structure is related to the
tendency for metals to maintain a crystalline internal
orientation of the component atom.
 On cooling a pure molten metal , a temperature –time curve is
obtained.
 This graph shows three portion –(1)for the cooling of molten metal
(2) a plateau-a horizontal portion – during this time the metal is
solidifying , and there is evolution of latent heat of fusion which
compensates for the heat loss to the surrounding ; and (3) a portion
for the cooling of the completely solidified metal.
 The cooling curves for alloys show no such plateau region.Here
crystalization takes place over a range of temperatures.
 Each alloy grain can be arranged as having a concentration gradient
of metals;the higher melting metal being concentrated close to the
nucleus and the lower melting metal close to the grain
bounderies.The material is said to have a cored structure .Such
coring may influence corrosion resistance since electrolytic cells
may be set up on the surface of the alloy between areas of different
alloy composition.
 Although dental base metal casting alloys typically solidify with a
dendritic microstructure , most noble metal casting alloys solidify
with an equiaxed polycrystalline microstructure ; The term equiaxed
means that the three dimensions of each grain are similar , in
contrast to the elongated morphology of the dendrites .
 A given atomic plane is discontinuous at a grain boundary. The
dislocations can not cross from one grain into an adjacent grain , and
they will subsequently pile up at the grain boundaries. When this
occurs , further deformation in these regions will require greater
stress.
 It is also evident that the grain boundaries are the final sites to
undergo freezing for a molten metal that forms an equiaxed grain
structure.Consiquently low melting phases ,precipitates, and
porosity are typically found at the grain boundaries .
 Hot tears (microcracks) can form at elevated temperatures in thin
areas of castings prepared from alloys with dendritic structures,
where there is insufficient bulk metal to resist the stresses imposed
by the stronger casting investment, and these cracks will degrade the
mechanical properties of the restorations.To avoid hot tears ,castings
need to have adequate thickness,and an alloy should be selected that
has an equiaxed grain structure in the as-cast condition.
 Cooling of molten metal should be done rapidly,to get a fine grain
structure,if strength and hardness are important.
 Cold working increases hardness and strength – this is known as
work-hardening. However this reduces percentage elongation ,the
material becomes more brittle . It becomes liable to fracture if
further cold work is carried out , because the potential for further
slip has been lost.
 The internal stresses of a cold worked metal can be removed by a
heat treatment at a temperature well below the recrystallisation
temperature.
 Recrystallisation gives a fine grain structure .Sometimes cold
working followed by heat treatment is used to obtain a fine structure
, to improve the properties of the material.
 Overheating , causing grain growth , must be avoided if properties
such as high yield strength and hardness are desired.
PHASE DIAGRAM

 Metals can be mixed together much as liquids are.Alloys may be a mixture of as


few as two or as many as nine or more different metals. As with liquids , not all
metals will dissolve in one another freely ; some metals will not dissolve at all into
other metals.The concept of phases and phase diagrams was developed to help
explain the nature of alloys and metal solubility.
 Phase diagrams are “maps” of the phases that occur when metals are mixed
together.
 If a series of cooling curves for alloys of different composition within a given alloy
system are available , a phase diagram can be constructed from which many
important predictions regarding coring and other structural variation can be made.
 When metals are mixed together in the molten state , then cooled in the solid state ,
there are several outcomes depending on the solubility of the metals in each other.
If the metals remain soluble in each other ,the result is a solid solution .If the metals
are not soluble in the solid state ,then an eutectic may form . Sometimes the
elements react to form a specific compound , called an intermetallic compound.
SOLID SOLUTION AND ITS PHASE
DIAGRAM
 In a solid solution there is only one phase present. A phase is defined as any
physically distinct , homogeneous , mechanically separable part of a system.
 Solid solutions may be of two types:
(1)Substitutional solid solution : These types of solid solutions are formed where two
different types of atoms occupy different position in crystal lattice.They are formed
between two metals if;
a) Their atomic sizes differ by less than about 15%.
b) They have the same type of crystal lattice.
c) They have the same chemical valency .
d) They do not react to form intermetallic compounds.
Substitutional solid solutions may be either disordered with a random distribution of
the atoms of two metals , or ordered.Ordered solutions impart higher hardness and
strengths to alloys.
(2) Interstitial solid solution : These are formed where very small atoms can be
accommodated in the interstices or spaces between larger atoms.Ex-carbon in iron
to form steel.
SOLID SOLUTION AND ITS PHASE DIAGRAM

 The solid solution system is characterized by a series of


melting ranges that are more or less smooth transition
between the two melting points of the pure elements .The
temperature distance between the liquidus and solidus
determines the melting range; it is characteristic for each
alloy system and varies with the composition within a
system .
SOLID SOLUTIONAND ITS PHASEDIAGRAM
 An indication of the degree of coring is given by the separation of the
solidus and liquidus lines on phase diagram.The potential for coring is
greater when there is wide separation of solidus and liquidus lines in
the phase diagram.
 With slow cooling the crystallization process is accompanied by
diffusion and a random distribution of atoms results, with no
coring.Rapid cooling quickly denies the alloy the energy and mobility
required for diffusion of atoms to occur and the cored structure is
‘locked in’ at low temperatures. Reducing the cooling rate as means of
eleminating coring will be self – defeating since it would produce an
alloy with large grain size which , of course , would have inferior
mechanical properties.
 Since coring may markedly reduce the corrosion resistance of some
alloys , a heat treatment is sometimes used to eliminate the cored
structure.Such a heat treatment is called a homogenization heat
treatment.
 This involves heating the alloy to a temperature just below the
solidus temperature for a few minutes to allow diffusion of atoms
and the establishment of homogeneous structure.The alloy is then
quenched in order to prevent grain growth from occuring.
 When two metals are mutually soluble in solid state , the solvent
is that metal whose crystal structure persists.If two metals are
completely soluble in all proportions and the same type of crystal
structure occurs throughout the alloy system , the solvent is
defined as the metal whose atoms occupy the majority of the total
number of positions in the crystal structure.
 Whenever a solute atom substitutes for a solvent atoms in a
crystal structure of a metal,the different size of the solute atom
resuls in a localised distortion, and the movement of the
dislocations become more difficult.The strength, proportional
limit and hardness are increased, and the ductility is usually
decreaased.Thus solid solution alloying can be a highly efficient
means of strengthening a metal.
EUTECTIC ALLOY
 Many binary alloy systems do not exhibit complete solubility in both the liquid
and solid states.The eutectic system is an example of an alloy for which the
component metals have limited solid solubility.
 Such a system of interest to dentistry is the silver – copper system .
 In the phase diagram for this system 3 phases are found.1)liquid phase (L)
2)a silver –rich substitutional phase (α) containing a small amount of copper
atoms , and 3)a copper-rich substitutional solid solution phase (β) containing a
small amount of silver atoms.
 The α and β phases are sometimes called as terminal solid solutions because of
their location at the left and right sides of the phase diagram.
The solidus can be identified
as the boundary line
ABEGD,since the liquid
phase is not found below this
line.

The liquidus can identified as


AED since there are no solid
phases above this line.

The major portion of the


diagram below 780⁰ is
composed of a two phase
system which represents a
mixture of the silver rich and
copper rich phases in the
alloy microstructure.
 The first difference
to be noted when
comparing with the
solid solution
system that the
liquidus and solidus
meet at a point
(E).This
composition is
known as the
eutectic composition
or simply the
eutectic .
 The temperature at which the eutectic composition melts is lower than the fusion
temperature of the parent metals(eutectic literally means ‘lowest melting’ ) and is the
lowest temperature at which any alloys of the composition metals is entirely liquid.
 There is no solidification range for composition E .The eutectic liquid composition
freezes at a constant temperature , similar to a pure metal, but the solid consists of
two phases (α and β).Eutectic alloys are often used when a lower fusion temperature
is desired, such as for dental solders.
 However eutectic alloys are inferior in other important properties compared with
solid solution alloys.
 In a peritectic system the terminal solid solution in
combination with liquidus give rise to a separate single
phase different from its two components. This is again
a liquid solid transformation where two phases
combine to give rise to a single phase, unlike eutectic,
where a single phase give rise to two phases.
 The silver-tin system ,which is the basis of the original
dental amalgam alloy, is a peritectic system.
(Ref: Philips’ Science of Dental Materials )
INTERMETALLIC COMPOUND
 Metals with chemical affinity for each other can form intermetallic
compounds .If two metals react to form new compound with a
specific composition an intermetallic compounds results.
 Ex- the compound Ag3Sn can be formed between silver and tin.

(Ref:Craig’s Restorative Dental Materials & Notes On Dental


Materials; E.C. Combe)
In the formation of these chemical compounds normal chemical
valencyof the metals does not always apply.
 Applications

All metal restoration

Removable Partial Denture (RPD)

Metal-ceramic or
Porcelain-fused to metal restoration
Objectives
Understand the alloy classifications
Know the roles of each element in dental
casting alloys
Know the requirements of porcelain-fused
to metal (or metal-ceramic) alloys
 Understand the relation between the
TCOE of PFM alloys and that of ceramics
Recognize the importance of some
properties of the alloys
1907 : Lost wax technique by Taggart
1932 - 1948 : Standardization of dental casting
alloys
. : Development of porcelain-fused-to-
1950s -1960s
metal (PFM) alloys
 Found that adding Pd and Pt to gold (Au) would lower
coefficient of thermal expansion sufficiently to ensure
physical compatibility between the porcelain veneer and
the metal substructure.
1970s : Placement of gold on the free market
 Increased prices stimulates the search for alternative low
gold and base metal alloys
Noble metals
◦ Elements with good metallic surfaces that retain their luster
in clean dry air
◦ Indicate the relative inertness of the element in relation to
the standard EMF series
◦ Resist oxidation, tarnish and corrosion during heating
casting and soldering
 Platinum group (6 metals)
 Platinum, Iridium, Osmium (atomic wt 190, density 22
g/cc)
 Palladium, Rhodium, Ruthenium (atomic wt 100,
density 11-12 g/cc)
 Gold (atomic wt 196, density 19.3 g/cc)
 (Silver?)
Precious metals
◦ Indicates how expensive a metal is based on
supply and demand.
◦ **The descriptors precious and semiprecious
should be avoided because they are imprecise
terms.
Gold content of a dental alloy
◦ Karat (K)
 Parts of pure gold per 24 parts of alloy . e.g. 18K,
24K
◦ Fineness
 Parts of pure gold per 1,000 parts of alloy.
 e.g. a 650 fine alloy has a gold content of 65%
 Primarily used for gold solders
Pennyweight (dwt.)
◦ 1 dwt = 1.555 gm = 0.05 oz
ADA
Specification
#5 Principal
Elements

ADA’s
Descriptive
Classification
Classification
 Referred to Gold-based alloys
• Alloys can have any composition as long as they pass t
he tests for toxicity, tarnish, yield strength, and perce
nt elongation.

Type %Au & Pt VHN Restoration
I (soft) 83 50-90 Inlay
II (medium) 78 90-120 Inlay/onlay
Onlay/Crown
III (hard) 78 120-150
&Bridge
IV (extra- Crown&Bridg
75 150-250
hard) e/RPD
1. High noble (HN)
2. Noble (N)
3. (Predominantly) Base metal (PB)
Alloy Type Total Noble Metal Content

High Noble Must Contain >40% Au and


>60% of noble metal elements.
Must contain >25%of noble
Noble metal elements.
Contain <25% of noble metal
Predominantly Base Metal elements.
Principal Elements
 When an alloy is identified according to the elements
it contains, the components are listed in declining
order of composition, with the largest constituent first
followed by the second largest constituent.
◦ e.g. Au-Ag-Pt (Au ~ 78%, Ag ~ 12%, Pt ~10%)
 Exception:Certain elements that significantly affect
physical properties or that represent potential
biocompatibility concerns are often designated
(regardless of their small amounts).
◦ e.g. Au-Cu-Ag-Pd (Au ~40%, Cu ~7.5%, Ag ~47%,
Pd~4%)
Descriptive
Classification
 Normal-fusing alloys  High-fusing alloys
(mostly for PFM)
◦ Medium-gold ◦ Gold-platinum-
◦ Low-gold palladium
◦ Silver-palladium ◦ Gold-palladium-silver
◦ Silver-indium ◦ Gold-palladium
◦ High-palladium
◦ Palladium-silver
◦ Base-metal
 Cr/Co; Cr/N
Restoration Metal-Ceramic RPD
Type All-Metal and All-Metal
Restorations Restorations
Alloy
Type
High Noble Au-Pt-Pd Au-Ag-Cu-Pd
> 40 wt% Au and > Au-Ag-Cu-Pd Au-Pd-Ag (5-12 wt%
60% of the noble metal Ag)
elements Au-Pd-Ag (>12 wt%
Ag)
Au-Pd (no Ag)

Noble Ag-Pd-Au-Cu Pd-Au (no Ag) Ag-Pd-Au-Cu


> 25 wt% of the noble Ag-Pd Pd-Au-Ag Ag-Pd
metal elements Pd-Ag
Pd-Cu
Pd-Co
Pd-Ga-Ag

Base Metal Pure Ti Pure Ti


< 25 wt% of the noble Ti-Al-V Ti-Al-V
metal elements Ni-Cr-Mo-Be Ni-Cr-Mo-Be
Ni-Cr-Mo Ni-Cr-Mo
Co-Cr-Mo Co-Cr-Mo
Co-Cr-W Co-Cr-W
• Gold (Au)
• Platinum (Pt)
• Palladium (Pd)
• Silver (Ag)
• Minor alloying elements
Gold (Au)
 Soft, (most) malleable an  Small amounts of impu
d ductile rities (ie. lead, mercury,
 Relatively low strength base metals) have a pro
 Tarnish resistant in air an nounced and usually de
d water at any temp. trimental effect on its p
 Attacked by only a few of roperties.
the most powerful oxidizi
ng agents Fusion temp = 1063°C
 Insoluble in sulfuric, nitri
c, or hydrochloric acids Density = 19.3 g/cm3
 Soluble in a combination Thermal coef. of exp. =
of nitric and sulfuric acids 14.2x10-6/°C
(aqua-regia) MOE = 80 GPa
Platinum (Pt)

 Tough, malleable and d  Fusion temp = 1755°C >Au

uctile  Density = 21.37 g/cm3 >Au


 Very high cost (usually
replaced by Pd in most  Thermal coef. of exp. =
modern alloys) 8.9x10-6/°C <Au

 High corrosion resistan  MOE = 147 Gpa >Au

ce
 Higher melting temp th
an porcelain
Palladium (Pd)

 Not used in the pure st


ate dentistry
 Has replaced Pt in dent
al casting alloys
 Decreased cost v.s. Pt
 Helps prevent corrosio
n of silver in the oral en
vironment
 Absorbs H2 gas when h
eated improperly
Silver (Ag)

 “Noble?”  Occludes large quantities of O


 Malleable and ductile 2 in molten state
 Best known conductor of  O2 gas will evolve during solid
heat and electricity ification resulting in pits and p
orosities.
 Harder than gold
 Unaltered in clean dry air
Fusion temp = 960.5°C
, however, combines wit
Density = 10.4 g/cm3
h sulfur, chlorine and pho
sphorus resulting in Thermal coef. of exp. =
severe tarnish in the oral 19.7x10-6/°C
environment MOE = 120 GPa
Minor Alloying Elements

 Iridium (Ir) - grain refining


 Ruthenium (Ru) - grain refining
 Grain refining
 The addition of as little as 50 ppm (0.005%) of Ir and R
u results in a 100x increase in the no. of grains per unit
volume.
 Increases the alloy’s tensile strength and %elongation
by >30%
 Increases tarnish resistance, slightly increases yield str
ength
 Does not appreciablly affect hardness
FUNCTION OF EACH ELEMENT
 Primarily ternary alloys of Au, Ag and Cu, with
minor amounts of Pt, Pd and Zn.
 Approx. >90% of the total alloy content is Au, Ag
and Pd
 Gold (Au)
Tarnish and corrosion resistance
○ Tarnish is an inverse function of gold content.
Contributes burnishability, ductility, and ability to heat
harden the alloy
 Silver (Ag)
 Helps control the color of the alloy, neutralizing the red color imparted by
Cu
 Promotes ductility
○ Au/Cu alloys (75% Au) break apart at grain boundaries during heat treatment if
no Ag is present.
 Platinum (Pt)
Very expensive ingredient
Contributes strength
Whitens the alloy
Increases the fusion temperature
 Platinum (Pt)
Very expensive ingredient
Contributes strength
Whitens the alloy
Increases the fusion temperature
 Copper (Cu) ***
Principle hardener in gold alloys
Conc. >12% of Au amount  alloy can be heat treated
Conc. >18%  decrease the melting temp of the alloy
When alloyed with Ag, Cu increases the alloy’s hardness and
decreases melting temp.
Cu imparts a reddish color to the metal and contributes most
to the corrosion of gold alloys.
Ag/Cu ratio is important to tarnish resistance (but not as
important as the Ag/Pd ratio).
Cu is not found in PFM alloys due to its tendency to discolor
the porcelain.
 Zinc (Zn)
 O2 scavenger
 1-2% helps to counteract the absorption of O2 by silver.
 Increases the castability, decreases porosities, and increases the
hardness and brittleness of the alloy
 Indium (In), Tin (Sn), Iron (Fe)
Hardens the alloy
 (Provides oxides for ceramic bonding in PFM alloys)
 Iridium (Ir), Ruthenium (Ru), Rhenium (Rh)
Grain refining

 Gallium (Ga)
 Added to high Pd alloys or non-silver Au/Pd metal ceramic alloys to
compensate for a decrease in the TCOE caused by the elimination of the
Ag.
 (Also provides oxides for ceramic bonding)

Type %Au %Cu %Ag %Pd %Pt %In,Sn,


Fe,Zn,Ga
I 83 6 10 0.5 - Balance

II 77 7 14 1 - Balance

III 75 9 11 3.5 - Balance

IV 69 10 12.5 3.5 3 Balance


Heat Treatment
Cu/Au system is the basis for heat treatment
 Cu:Au ratio > 12:88  the alloy is heat treatable.
 Above 424°C  solid solution
 Quenching from above 424°C will result in a softer, more ductile alloy with
decreased strength
 Below 424°C ordered crystal lattice
 Alloy has increased strength, hardness and decreased ductility.
 The amount of transformation is time and temperature dependent and the
process is reversible
Softening Heat Treatment
(Solution Heat Treatment)
 Heat alloy to 700°C for 10 min. then quench.
 Decreased tensile strength, proportional limit and hardness
 Increases ductility and %elongation
 MOE not significantly altered.
 Indicated prior to adjusting, burnishing and polishing
Hardening Heat Treatment
(Age Hardening)
 Heat alloy to 450°C for 2 min., cool slowly to 250°C over
30 mins then quench. Or Heat to 350°C for 10 –15 min.
and quench
 Increases strength, proportional limit and hardness
 Decreases ductility and %elongation
 Indicated for RPD frameworks and long span FPD’s
Alloys for PFM or Metal Ceramic
Restoration
Au-Pt-Pd
Au-Pd-Ag
Au-Pd
Pd-Ag
High Pd

No Copper!
some important Requirements
Must have the potential to bond to dental porcelain
 need oxide-forming elements (small amount of base metals)
Posses coefficient of thermal contraction compatible with t
hose of dental porcelains
Sufficiently high solidus temp (fusing temp) to permit the
application of low-fusing porcelains
 >100°C than the firing temp of the ceramic
Ceramic-Metal Bond
Typically, TCOE of porcelain = 13.0 to 14.0 x 10-6/°C
and the metals = 13.5 to 14.5 x 10-6/°C .
The difference of 0.5 x 10-6/°C causes the metal to
contract slightly more than does the ceramic durin
g cooling after firing the porcelain.
This condition puts the ceramic under slight resid
ual compression, which makes it less sensitive to a
pplied tensile forces.
Chemical bonding by oxide layer.
Also micromechanical bonding is there.
Palladium in PFM Alloys
Hardens the alloy
Whitens the alloy
Increases the alloy’s casting temp.
Increases the alloy’s MOE
Renders silver tarnish resistant
Decreases the alloy’s density
Decreases the alloy’s thermal coef. of exp.
In, Sn, Fe, Ga - provide metallic oxides for porcelain bondin
g, and harden the alloy.
Ga - increases the thermal coef. of exp. to compensate for d
ecreased or absence of Ag.
Considerations on
 Melting
Properties
Range
 The solidus-liquidus range should be narrow to avoid having the
alloy in a molten state for extended times during casting.
 To decrease oxides and contamination
 Liquidus temp determines the burnout temp, type of investment,
and type of heat-source.
 Burnout temp  liquidus temp – 500°C
 Burnout temp >700°C, cannot use gypsum-bonded investment
 Liquidus temp: Base-metal 1400°-1500°C vs. cast gold Type I-IV
800°-1050°C
 Liquidus temp < 1100°C  gas-air torch, >1100°C  gas-oxygen
torch or electrical induction
 Solidus temp is important to soldering and formation of ordered
phases.
 Limit heating to 50°C below the solidus temp.
Density

 Alloys with high densities will generally


accelerate into the mold during casting and
tend to form complete castings more easily.
 Base-metal 7-8 g/cc vs. High Noble 13-18 g/cc
 Alloys with lower density  lighter
 Yield Strength
 Can be increased with treatment and
changing the compositions
Hardness

 Is a good indicator of the ability of an alloy to


resist local permanent deformation under
occlusal load
 Gives some indication of the difficulty in
polishing the alloy
 Most noble casting alloys < enamel (343
Kg/mm2) and < base-metal alloys
Elongation/Fatigue
Biocompatibility

 Noble alloys related to elemental release from


the alloys (i.e., from the corrosion process).
 Base-metal alloys
 Be  from contact dermatitis to severe
chemical pheumonitis
 Ni  sensitivity
 5-10 times higher for females
 5%-8% of females
OTHER ALLOYS

 Low Gold Alloys:-


 They are crown and bridge alloys having the gold content
below 60%(usually in range of 42%-55%).However gold
must be the major element.
 The low gold alloys were developed because of the
increase in gold prices.However reducing in gold content
increase in tarnish and corrosion.This problem was
overcome by two discoveries.
 1) Palladium made the silver more tarnish resistant.1%
palladium is required for every 3% of silver.
 2) The silver copper ratio had to be carefully balanced to
yield a low silver rich phase in the microstructure.
 SILVER -PALLADIUM ALLOYS
 These alloys were introduced as an alternative to gold
alloys. It is predominantly silver in composition.
Palladium (atleast 25%) is added to provide nobility and
resistance against tarnish.They may or may not contain
copper and gold.
 The 20 th century generated substantially new changes to dental
prosthetic materials.The major factors that are driving new
developments are;economy,performance and esthetics.
 But we must not forget that it all had been started with gold and
gold itself is the GOLD STANDARD in cast alloy.So although
gold is now old (material) but ,we shouldn’t forget ,OLD IS
GOLD .
 REFERENCES:-
 Phyllips’ science of dental materials(11 th ed).
 Craig’s restorative dental materials(12 th ed).
 Applied dental materials –McCabe(7th ed).
 Dental materials science – P.K.Basu(4th ed).
 Basic dental materials- John J.Manappallil(2nd
ed).
 Notes on dental materials- Coomb(6th ed).
 Material science in dentistry-
Greener;Harcourt;Lautenschlager.
 Dental Clinics Of North America –July ;2007 ;Vol-
51,no-3

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