20 Elements and 10 Compounds

Relevant
to
H.R.M
by:
Danica Macalalag
20 Elements
 HYDROGEN (H)
• Properties: At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a nontoxic,
nonmetallic, odorless, tasteless, colorless, and highly combustible diatomic
gas with the molecular formula H2. Hydrogen is also prevalent on Earth in
the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water.
• Sources: Fossil fuels are the dominant source of industrial hydrogen.
Carbon dioxide can be separated from natural gas with a 60-70% efficiency
for hydrogen production and from other hydrocarbons to varying degrees
of efficiency.Specifically, bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam
reforming of methane or natural gas
• History: Discovery and use. In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered and
described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in
the production of hydrogen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to
recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a
metal-acid reaction "inflammable air".
• Present Application: Power Generation, Stationary Fuel Cells, Power to
Gas
 CARBON (C)
• Properties: The physical and chemical properties of carbon depend on the
crystalline structure of the element. Its density fluctuates from 2.25 g/cm³
(1.30 ounces/in³) for graphite and 3.51 g/cm³ (2.03 ounces/in³) for
diamond. The melting point of graphite is 3500ºC (6332ºF) and the
extrapolated boiling point is 4830ºC (8726ºF).
• Sources: There are both natural and human sources of carbon dioxide
emissions. Natural sources include decomposition, ocean release and
respiration. Human sources come from activities like cement production,
deforestation as well as the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural
gas.
• History: The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and
charcoal, whence also comes the French charbon, meaning charcoal. In
German, Dutch and Danish, the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff, koolstof
and kulstof respectively, all literally meaning coal-substance. Carbon was
discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal
to the earliest human civilizations.
 CARBON (C)
• Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE
in China, while carbon in the form of charcoal was
made around Roman times by the same chemistry as it
is today, by heating wood in a pyramid covered with
clay to exclude air.
• Present Application: Carbon is unique among the
elements in its ability to form strongly bonded chains,
sealed off by hydrogen atoms. These hydrocarbons,
extracted naturally as fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural
gas), are mostly used as fuels. A small but important
fraction is used as a feedstock for the petrochemical
industries producing polymers, fibres, paints, solvents
and plastics etc.
 OXYGEN (O)
• Properties: At standard temperature and pressure (STP), two atoms of the
element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless, odorless, tasteless diatomic gas
with the formula O2. Oxygen is a member of the chalcogen group on the
periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetallic element.
• Sources: Photosynthesis
• History: Joseph Priestley and Carl Wilhelm Scheele both independently
discovered oxygen, but Priestly is usually given credit for the discovery.
They were both able to produce oxygen by heating mercuric oxide (HgO).
Priestley called the gas produced in his experiments 'dephlogisticated air'
and Scheele called his 'fire air'.
• Present Application: Multi-Industry Uses for Oxygen: Oxygen is used with
fuel gases in gas welding, gas cutting, oxygen scarfing, flame cleaning,
flame hardening, and flame straightening. In gas cutting, the oxygen must
be of high quality to ensure a high cutting speed and a clean cut.
 SODIUM (Na)
• Properties: It's a soft metal, reactive and with a low melting point, with a
relative density of 0,97 at 20ºC (68ºF). From the commercial point of view,
sodium is the most important of all the alkaline metals. Sodium reacts
quickly with water, and also with snow and ice, to produce sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen.
• Sources: Celery, Beetroot, Milk
• History: Although sodium is the sixth most abundant element on earth and
comprises about 2.6% of the earth's crust, it is a very reactive element and
is never found free in nature. Pure sodium was first isolated by Sir
Humphry Davy in 1807 through the electrolysis of caustic soda (NaOH)
• Present Application: The most common compound of sodium is sodium
chloride (common salt). It is added to food and used to de-ice roads in
winter. It is also used as a feedstock for the chemical industry. Sodium
carbonate (washing soda) is also a useful sodium salt.
 CHLORINE (Cl)
• Properties: Chlorine liquid form will burn the skin, Chlorine has been used
as a chemical warfare agent. Chlorine has a melting point of -100.98°C,
boiling point of -34.6°C, density of 3.214 g/l, specific gravity of 1.56 (-
33.6°C), with a valence of 1, 3, 5, or 7.
• Sources: Chlorine is also found in the minerals carnallite (magnesium
potassium chloride) and sylvite (potassium chloride).
• History: Chlorine was discovered in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He
obtained it through the reaction of the mineral pyrolusite (manganese
dioxide, MnO2) with hydrochloric acid (HCl, then known as muriatic acid).
Scheele thought the resulting gas contained oxygen. Sir Humphry Davy
proposed and confirmed chlorine to be an element in 1810, and he also
named the element.
• Present Application: Chlorine is commonly used as an antiseptic and is
used to make drinking water safe and to treat swimming pools. Large
amounts of chlorine are used in many industrial processes, such as in the
production of paper products, plastics, dyes, textiles, medicines, antiseptics,
insecticides, solvents and paints
 IODINE (I)
• Properties: Iodine is a solid diatomic non-metal that is very pungent in odor
and a corrosive poison. The density of iodine is 4.94 g/mL, which means it
will sink in water.
• Sources: Sea Vegetables, Cranberries, Organic Yogurt, Organic
Strawberries
• History: Iodine was discovered by the French chemist Barnard Courtois in
1811. Courtois was extracting sodium and potassium compounds from
seaweed ash. Once these compounds were removed, he added sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) to further process the ash. He accidentally added too much acid
and a violet colored cloud erupted from the mass. The gas condensed on
metal objects in the room, creating solid iodine.
• Present Application: Iodine reduces thyroid hormone and can kill fungus,
bacteria, and other microorganisms such as amoebas. A specific kind of
iodine called potassium iodide is also used to treat (but not prevent) the
effects of a radioactive accident
 NITROGEN (N)
• Properties: Nitrogen gas (chemical symbol N) is generally inert,
nonmetallic, colorless, odorless and tasteless. Its atomic number is 7,
and it has an atomic weight of 14.0067. Nitrogen has a density of
1.251 grams/liter at 0 C and a specific gravity of 0.96737, making it
slightly lighter than air.
• Sources: wastewater and stormwater discharge, combined sewer
overflows, atmospheric deposition, fertilizer application, livestock
waste, urban runoff, failing septic systems, contaminated ground
water, and natural sources
• History: Nitrogen was discovered by the Scottish physician Daniel
Rutherford in 1772. It is the fifth most abundant element in the
universe and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere, which
contains an estimated 4,000 trillion tons of the gas. Nitrogen is
obtained from liquefied air through a process known as fractional
distillation. The largest use of nitrogen is for the production of
ammonia (NH3).
 NITROGEN
• Large amounts of nitrogen are combined with hydrogen
to produce ammonia in a method known as the Haber
process. Large amounts of ammonia are then used to
create fertilizers, explosives and, through a process
known as the Ostwald process, nitric acid (HNO3).
• Present Application: Nitrogen is important to the
chemical industry. It is used to make fertilisers, nitric
acid, nylon, dyes and explosives. To make these
products, nitrogen must first be reacted with hydrogen
to produce ammonia. This is done by the Haber
process.
 POTASSIUM (K)
• Properties: a soft, silvery-white metal with a melting point of 63°C
(145°F) and a boiling point of 770°C (1,420°F). Its density is 0.862
grams per cubic centimeter, less than that of water (1.00 grams per
cubic centimeter). That means that potassium metal can float on
water.
Sources: Vegetables and Some Beans
• History: From the English word "potash" (pot ashes) and the Arabic
word "qali" meaning alkali (the origin of the symbol K comes from
the Latin word "kalium"). Until the 18th century no distinction was
made between potassium and sodium. This was because early
chemists did not recognise that "mineral alkali" (Na2CO3, sodium
carbonate, coming from deposits in the earth) and "vegetable alkali"
(K2CO3, potassium carbonate, derived from wood ashes) are
distinct from each other. Eventually a distinction was made.
 POTASSIUM (K)
• Well before potassium was recognized as an element, potassium
carbonate was mixed with animal fat to make soap. The carbonate
was made by extracting wood ash with water before concentration
by boiling - hence the name "potash" for potassium salts. Potassium
was isolated in 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy, who obtained it through
the electrolysis of very dry molten caustic potash (KOH, potassium
hydroxide). Potassium collected at the cathode. Potassium was the
first metal isolated by electrolysis. Davy isolated sodium by a
similar procedure later in 1807.
• Present Application: The greatest demand for potassium compounds
is in fertilisers. Many other potassium salts are of great importance,
including the nitrate, carbonate, chloride, bromide, cyanide and
sulfate. Potassium carbonate is used in the manufacture of glass.
Potassium hydroxide is used to make detergent and liquid soap.
Potassium chloride is used in pharmaceuticals and saline drips.
 CALCIUM (Ca)
• Properties: it is a silvery, moderately hard metallic element that
constitutes approximately 3.5% of the earth's crust and is a basic
component of most animals and plants. It occurs naturally in
limestone, gypsum, and fluorite. The Physical and Chemical
Properties are the characteristics of a substance, like Calcium, which
distinguishes it from any other substance.
Sources: Leafy Vegetables, Some Fish
• History: Calcium was named after the Latin term calx meaning lime,
and is a reactive silvery metallic element found in Group 2 of the
periodic table. It was first isolated in 1808 in England when Sir
Humphry Davy electrolyzed a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide.
• Present Application: Calcium metal is used as a reducing agent in
preparing other metals such as thorium and uranium. It is also used
as an alloying agent for aluminium, beryllium, copper, lead and
magnesium alloys.
 BORON (B)
• Properties: It has several forms, the most common of which is
amorphous boron, a dark powder, unreactive to oxygen, water, acids
and alkalis. It reacts with metals to form borides. At standard
temperatures boron is a poor electrical conductor but is a good
conductor at high temperatures.
Sources: Many plant-based foods offer decent to wonderful amounts
of boron. Some of the best include: chickpeas, almonds, beans,
vegetables, bananas, walnuts, avocado, broccoli, prunes, oranges,
red grapes, apples, raisins, pears, and many other beans and
legumes.
• History: Boron was discovered by Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac and
Louis-Jaques Thénard, French chemists, and independently by Sir
Humphry Davy, an English chemist, in 1808. They all isolated boron
by combining boric acid (H3BO3) with potassium. Today, boron is
obtained by heating borax (Na2B4O7·10H2O) with carbon,
although other methods are used if high-purity boron is required.
 BORON (B)
• Present Application: Boron is used in
pyrotechnics and flares to produce a green
color. Boron has also been used in some
rockets as an ignition source. Boron-10, one of
the naturally occurring isotopes of boron, is a
good absorber of neutrons and is used in the
control rods of nuclear reactors, as a radiation
shield and as a neutron detector. Boron
filaments are used in the aerospace industry
because of their high-strength and lightweight.
 HELLIUM (He)
• Properties: Helium has many unique properties: low boiling point, low
density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity and inertness, so it is use
for any application which can exploit these properties. Helium was the first
gas used for filling balloons and dirigibles.
• Sources: Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural
radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium,
although there are other examples), as the alpha particles emitted by such
decays consist of helium-4 nuclei
• History: Helium, the second most abundant element in the universe, was
discovered on the sun before it was found on the earth. Pierre-Jules-César
Janssen, a French astronomer, noticed a yellow line in the sun's spectrum
while studying a total solar eclipse in 1868. Sir Norman Lockyer, an
English astronomer, realized that this line, with a wavelength of 587.49
nanometers, could not be produced by any element known at the time. It
was hypothesized that a new element on the sun was responsible for this
mysterious yellow emission. This unknown element was named helium by
Lockyer.
 HELLIUM (He)
• Present Application: Helium is used as a cooling medium for the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC), and the superconducting magnets in MRI scanners
and NMR spectrometers. It is also used to keep satellite instruments cool
and was used to cool the liquid oxygen and hydrogen that powered the
Apollo space vehicles.
 LEAD (Pb)
• Properties: Lead is soft and malleable, and has a relatively low melting
point. When freshly cut, lead is bluish-white; it tarnishes to a dull gray
color when exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any
stable element and three of its isotopes each conclude a major decay chain
of heavier elements.
• Sources: Soil, Drinking Water, Air
• History: Lead was one of the earliest metals discovered by the human race
and was in use by 3000 B.C. The ancient Romans used lead for making
water pipes and lining baths, and the plumber who joins and mends pipes
takes his name from the Latin word plumbum, meaning lead.
• Present Application: This easily worked and corrosion-resistant metal has
been used for pipes, pewter and paint since Roman times. It has also been
used in lead glazes for pottery and, in this century, insecticides, hair dyes
and as an anti-knocking additive for petrol.
 SULFUR (S)
• Properties: Sulfur is an odorless, tasteless, light yellow solid. It is a reactive
element that given favorable circumstances combines with all other
elements except gases, gold, and platinum. Sulfur appears in a number of
different allotropic modifications: rhombic, monoclinic, polymeric, and
others.
• Sources: Protein foods that contain the sulfur amino acids methionine,
cystine and cysteine are particularly good dietary sources. Eggs are among
the highest dietary sources of sulfur, with meat, poultry and fish also
providing large amounts.
• History: Sulfur, the tenth most abundant element in the universe, has been
known since ancient times. Sometime around 1777, Antoine Lavoisier
convinced the rest of the scientific community that sulfur was an element.
Sulfur is a component of many common minerals, such as galena (PbS),
gypsum (CaSO4·2(H2O), pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite (ZnS or FeS), cinnabar
(HgS), stibnite (Sb2S3), epsomite (MgSO4·7(H2O)), celestite (SrSO4) and
barite (BaSO4).
• Nearly 25% of the sulfur produced today is recovered from petroleum
refining operations and as a byproduct of extracting other materials from
sulfur containing ores. The majority of the sulfur produced today is
obtained from underground deposits, usually found in conjunction with salt
deposits, with a process known as the Frasch process.
• Present Application: sulfur is used in black gunpowder, matches, and
fireworks; in the vulcanization of rubber; as a fungicide, insecticide, and
fumigant; in the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers; and in the treatment
of certain skin diseases. The principal use of sulfur, however, is in the
preparation of its compounds
 IRON (Fe)
• Properties: Iron is a shiny, bright white metal that is soft, malleable, ductile
and strong. Its surface is usually discolored by corrosion, since it combines
readily with the oxygen of the air in the presence of moisture.
• Sources: Shell Fish, Spinach, Legumes
• History: From the Anglo-Saxon word "iron" or "iren" (the origin of the
symbol Fe comes from the Latin word "ferrum" meaning "iron"). Possibly
the word iron is derived from earlier words meaning "holy metal" because
it was used to make the swords used in the Crusades. Iron was known in
prehistoric times. Genesis says that Tubal-Cain, seven generations from
Adam, was "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." Smelted iron
artifacts have been identified from around 3000 B.C. A remarkable iron
pillar, dating to about A.D. 400, remains standing today in Delhi, India.
This solid pillar is wrought iron and about 7.5 m high by 40 cm in diameter.
Corrosion to the pillar has been minimal despite its exposure to the weather
since its erection.
• Present Application: Most is used to manufacture steel, used in civil
engineering (reinforced concrete, girders etc) and in manufacturing.
 ZINC (Zn)
• Properties: Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous metal. It is brittle at ambient
temperatures but is malleable at 100 to 150°C. It is a reasonable conductor
of electricity. The density of zinc is 7.140 g/mL, which means the metal
will sink in water and is relatively heavy.
• Sources: Oysters contain more zinc per serving than any other food, but red
meat and poultry provide the majority of zinc in the American diet. Other
good food sources include beans, nuts, certain types of seafood (such as
crab and lobster), whole grains, fortified breakfast cereals, and dairy
products
• History: From the German word "zink".Centuries before zinc was
recognized as a distinct element, zinc ores were used for making brass (a
mixture of copper and zinc). A brass dating from between 1400-1000 BC
has been found in Palestine. An alloy containing 87% zinc was found in
prehistoric ruins in Transylvania. The smelting of zinc ores with copper
was apparently discovered in Cyprus and was used later by the Romans.
Metallic zinc was produced in the 13th century in India by reducing
calamine (zinc carbonate, ZnCO3) with organic substances such as wool.
 ZINC (Zn)
• Present Application: Most zinc is used to galvanise other metals, such as
iron, to prevent rusting. Galvanised steel is used for car bodies, street lamp
posts, safety barriers and suspension bridges. Large quantities of zinc are
used to produce die-castings, which are important in the automobile,
electrical and hardware industries. Zinc is also used in alloys such as brass,
nickel silver and aluminium solder. Zinc oxide is widely used in the
manufacture of very many products such as paints, rubber, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps, batteries, textiles and electrical
equipment. Zinc sulfide is used in making luminous paints, fluorescent
lights and x-ray screens
 COPPER (Cu)
• Properties: It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal
and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a
reddish-orange color.
• Sources: Oysters and other shellfish, whole grains, beans, nuts, potatoes,
and organ meats (kidneys, liver) are good sources of copper. Dark leafy
greens, dried fruits such as prunes, cocoa, black pepper, and yeast are also
sources of copper in the diet.
• History: Copper has been an essential material to man since pre-historic
times. In fact, one of the major "ages" or stages of human history is named
for a copper alloy, bronze. Copper and its many alloys have played an
important role in many civilizations, from the ancient Egyptians, Romans
to modern day cultures around the world. Here, you will find a number of
reference materials detailing the role that copper has played throughout
human civilization for thousands of years.
 COPPER (Cu)
• Present Application: Historically, copper was the first metal to be worked
by people. The discovery that it could be hardened with a little tin to form
the alloy bronze gave the name to the Bronze Age. Traditionally it has been
one of the metals used to make coins, along with silver and gold. However,
it is the most common of the three and therefore the least valued. All US
coins are now copper alloys, and gun metals also contain copper. Most
copper is used in electrical equipment such as wiring and motors. This is
because it conducts both heat and electricity very well, and can be drawn
into wires. It also has uses in construction (for example roofing and
plumbing), and industrial machinery (such as heat exchangers). Copper
sulfate is used widely as an agricultural poison and as an algicide in water
purification. Copper compounds, such as Fehling’s solution, are used in
chemical tests for sugar detection
 GOLD (Au)
• Properties: Gold is a soft metal with a number of interesting physical
properties. Gold is both malleable and ductile. Gold is a heavy metal
(density 19.3 g cm-3) and one gram of gold can be hammered out into a
thin sheet of gold a metre in area, and just 230 atoms or so thick.
• Sources: Gold is primarily found as the pure native metal. Sylvanite and
Calavarite are gold-bearing minerals. Gold usually is found embedded in
quartz veins, or placer stream gravel.
• History: The first firm evidence we have of human interaction with gold
occurred in ancient Egypt around 3,000 B.C. Gold played an important role
in ancient Egyptian mythology and was prized by pharaohs and temple
priests. It was so important, in fact, that the capstones on the Pyramids of
Giza were made from solid gold. The Egyptians also produced the first
known currency exchange ratio which mandated the correct ratio of gold to
silver: one piece of gold is equal to two and a half parts of silver. This is
also the first recorded measurement of the lower value of silver in
comparison to gold.
 GOLD (Au)
• The Egyptians also produced gold maps – some of which survive to
this day. These gold maps described where to find gold mines and
various gold deposits around the Egyptian kingdom. As much as the
Egyptians loved gold, they never used it as a bartering tool. Instead,
most Egyptians used agricultural products like barley as a de-facto
form of money. The first known civilization to use gold as a form of
currency was the Kingdom of Lydia, an ancient civilization centered
in western Turkey.
• Present Application: Gold can be melted and cast into very detailed
shapes. The special properties of gold have allowed it to be used for
various ornamental objects in the past and still today. The early use
of gold for ornamental purposes has remained today. The main use
of gold since ancient days has been making jewelry, but
approximately 75% of gold that is used now is still used in making
of jewelry because of its beauty. Today, jewelers use gold to make
necklaces, rings, earrings and bracelets, and pendants.
 PLATINUM (Pt)
• Properties: Physically, platinum is heavy, soft, malleable (easy to work—
only silver and gold are easier to shape), and ductile (easy to draw into
wires) and has a fairly high melting point (~1770°C or 3220°F).
Chemically, it's often described as a noble metal because it is so unreactive.
• Sources: A major source of platinum is the ore sperrylite (PtAs2). It is also
found in the mineral cooperite (PtS). Platinum is also produced
commercially as a by-product of nickel refining from copper-nickel ores.
• History: From the Spanish word "platina" meaning "silver". The metal was
used by pre-Columbian Indians but platinum was "rediscovered" in South
America by Ulloa in 1735 and by Wood in 1741. In 1822 plenty of
platinum was discovered in the Ural Mountains in Russia.
 PLATINUM (Pt)
• Present Application: Platinum is used extensively for jewellery. Its main
use, however, is in catalytic converters for cars, trucks and buses. This
accounts for about 50% of demand each year. Platinum is very effective at
converting emissions from the vehicle’s engine into less harmful waste
products. Platinum is used in the chemicals industry as a catalyst for the
production of nitric acid, silicone and benzene. It is also used as a catalyst
to improve the efficiency of fuel cells. The electronics industry uses
platinum for computer hard disks and thermocouples. Platinum is also used
to make optical fibres and LCDs, turbine blades, spark plugs, pacemakers
and dental fillings.
 TIN (Sn)
• Properties: Tin is relatively unaffected by both water and oxygen at room
temperatures. It does not rust, corrode, or react in any other way. This
explains one of its major uses: as a coating to protect other metals. At
higher temperatures, however, the metal reacts with both water (as steam)
and oxygen to form tin oxide.
• Sources: Tin does not occur as the native element but must be extracted
from various ores. Cassiterite (SnO2) is the only commercially important
source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex
sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite, franckeite, canfieldite, and teallite.
• History: Tin had a direct impact on human history mainly on account of
bronze, although it could be used in its own right, witness a tin ring and
pilgrim bottle found in an Egyptian tomb of the eighteenth dynasty (1580–
1350 BC). The Chinese were mining tin around 700 BC in the province of
Yunnan. Pure tin has also been found at Machu Picchu, the mountain
citadel of the Incas.
 TIN (Sn)
• When copper was alloyed with around 5 per cent of tin it produced bronze, which
not only melted at a lower temperature, so making it easier to work, but produced a
metal that was much harder, and ideal for tools and weapons. The Bronze Age is
now a recognised stage in the development of civilisation. How bronze was
discovered we do not know, but the peoples of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus
valley started using it around 3000 BC.
• Present Application: Tin has many uses. It takes a high polish and is used to coat
other metals to prevent corrosion, such as in tin cans, which are made of tin-coated
steel. Alloys of tin are important, such as soft solder, pewter, bronze and phosphor
bronze. A niobium-tin alloy is used for superconducting magnets. Most window
glass is made by floating molten glass on molten tin to produce a flat surface. Tin
salts sprayed onto glass are used to produce electrically conductive coatings. The
most important tin salt used is tin(II) chloride, which is used as a reducing agent
and as a mordant for dyeing calico and silk. Tin(IV) oxide is used for ceramics and
gas sensors. Zinc stannate (Zn2SnO4) is a fire-retardant used in plastics. Some tin
compounds have been used as anti-fouling paint for ships and boats, to prevent
barnacles. However, even at low levels these compounds are deadly to marine life,
especially oysters. Its use has now been banned in most countries.
 MERCURY (Hg)
• Properties: Mercury is a silver metallic element that exists as a liquid at
room temperature. It has the atomic symbol Hg (from hydrargyrum, liquid
silver), atomic number 80, and atomic weight 200.59. Mercury is used in
many industrial applications and its salts have been employed
therapeutically as purgatives, antisyphilitics, disinfectants, and astringent.
Mercury is an element with atomic symbol Hg, atomic number 80, and
atomic weight 200.59; a heavy, silvery-white metal, liquid at room
temperature, a rather poor conductor of heat and a fair conductor of
electricity.
• Sources: Natural sources of mercury include volcanoes, forest fires,
cannabar (ore) and fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum. Levels of
mercury in the environment are increasing due to discharge from
hydroelectric, mining, pulp, and paper industries.
 MERCURY (Hg)
• History: Named after the planet "Mercury" (the origin of the symbol
Hg is the Latin word "hydrargyrum" meaning "liquid
silver").Mercury was known to ancient Chinese and Hindus before
2000 BC and was found in tubes in Egyptian tombs dated from 1500
BC It was used to forma amalgams of other metals around 500 BC.
The Greeks used mercury in ointments and the Romans used it,
unfortunately for those using it, in cosmetics.
• Present Application: Mercury is used for the manufacture of
industrial chemicals and for electrical and electronic applications. It
can be found in meteorological equipment like thermometers and
barometers. Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor lamps which
light highways at night. Mercury batteries, dental amalgams, and
even mirrors can make use of mercury.
10 Compounds
 FATTY ACID
• Properties: Fats and fatty acids are soluble in organic solvents, such as
petroleum ether, benzene and chloroform. They are insoluble in water.
• Source: Industrial, Animals
• History: The concept of fatty acid (acide gras) was introduced by Michel
Eugène Chevreul, a French chemist whose work with fatty acids led to
early applications in the fields of art and science. He is credited with the
discovery of margaric acid, creatine, and designing an early form of soap
made from animal fats and salt.
• Present application: Dairy Products, Soap, Health Products
 WATER
• Properties : Boiling Point and Freezing Point, Surface Tension, Heat of
Vaporization, and Vapor Pressure. Viscosity and Cohesion. Solid State.
Liquid State. Gas State.
• Source: Natural Resource
• History: Some 10 000 years ago, when people adopted an agrarian way of
life, mankind established permanent settlements. This new type of
livelihood spread everywhere and the population began to expand faster
than ever before. Sedentary agricultural life made it possible to construct
villages, cities and eventually states, all of which were highly dependent on
water. This created a brand new relation between humans and water.
Pathogens transmitted by contaminated water became a very serious health
risk for the sedentary agriculturists. In this world guaranteeing pure water
for people became a prerequisite for successful urbanization and state
formation.
• Present Application: Agriculture, Industrial, Household, Environmental
 SALT
• Properties: It is odorless, white, cubic crystals with salty taste. Salt is
hygroscopic in nature. Due to strong electrostatic force of attraction
between ions, the melting point of sodium chloride is 800.8 °C and boiling
point is 1465 °C. Its vapour pressure at 865 °C is 1 mm Hg and density of
NaCl is 2.165 g c m 3.
• Source: Sea water
• History : As far back as 6050 BC, salt has been an important and integral
part of the world’s history, as it has been interwoven into countless
civilizations. Used as a part of Egyptian religious offerings and valuable
trade between the Phoenicians and their Mediterranean empire, salt and
history have been inextricably intertwined for millennia, with great
importance placed on salt by many different cultures. Even today, the
history of salt touches our daily lives.
 SALT
• The word “salary” was derived from the word “salt.” Salt was highly
valued and its production was legally restricted in ancient times, so it was
historically used as a method of trade and currency. The word “salad” also
originated from “salt,” and began with the early Romans salting their leafy
greens and vegetables. Undeniably, the history of salt is both broad and
unique, leaving its indelible mark in cultures across the globe.
• Present Application: Most people probably think of salt as simply a white
granular food seasoning. In fact, only 6% of all salt manufactured goes into
food. Apparently we use salt in more than 14,000 different ways from the
making of products as varied as plastic, paper, glass, polyester, rubber and
fertilisers to household bleach, soaps, detergents and dyes. It also used in
Water Conditioning, Food Grade Salt, Agriculture, Highway De-icing,
Industrial Chemicals
 SUGAR
• Properties: Solubility - Sugar is very soluble in water. The ability to
produce solutions of varying sugar concentrations is important in many
food applications. A high level of solubility, for example, is essential in
beverages to provide sweetness and to increase viscosity to create a
desirable 'mouthfeel'.
• Source: Plants, Fruits
• History: It is thought that cane sugar was first used by man in Polynesia
from where it spread to India. In 510 BC the Emperor Darius of what was
then Persia invaded India where he found "the reed which gives honey
without bees". The secret of cane sugar, as with many other of man's
discoveries, was kept a closely guarded secret whilst the finished product
was exported for a rich profit.
 SUGAR
• It was the major expansion of the Arab peoples in the seventh century AD
that led to a breaking of the secret. When they invaded Persia in 642 AD
they found sugar cane being grown and learnt how sugar was made. As
their expansion continued they established sugar production in other lands
that they conquered including North Africa and Spain. Sugar was only
discovered by western Europeans as a result of the Crusades in the 11th
Century AD.
• Present Application: Sweetener, Wine Making
 BAKING POWDER
• Properties: Sodium bicarbonate is an odorless, white crystalline solid or
fine powder. It has a slightly alkaline taste. Its density is 2.20 g mL-1 and it
decomposes in temperatures above 50 ºC. The decomposition yields to
sodium carbonate.
• Source: dry acid, base, and filler
• History: The development of baking powders began with the discovery of
carbonate materials. One of the first carbonates was potash (potassium
carbonate, K2CO3), a material that was extracted from wood ashes. During
the eighteenth century, potash production had become a major commercial
industry. American colonies exported huge amounts to England where it
was used by glass factories and soap manufacturers.
 BAKING POWDER
• Potash's usefulness to the baking industry was discovered during the 1760s.
Prior to this time bakers had to hand knead dough for long periods to get
the proper amount of air mixed throughout. For recipes which called for
sourdough, pearlash (concentrated potash) was added to offset the sour
taste. By chance, bakers found that these types of dough rose quickly.
Evidently, the pearlash reacted with the natural acids in the sour-dough to
produce carbon dioxide gas. This discovery revolutionized the baking
industry.
• Present Application: Baking
 VINEGAR
• Properties: The physical and chemical properties of vinegar reflect the fact
that vinegar is mainly a dilute aqueous solution of acetic acid. This acid
liquid which we call vinegar, is the product of two biochemical processes:
1. Alcoholic fermentation, which converts natural sugars into alcohol. 2.
Acid fermentation in which acetobacter, microorganisms present in the air
we breathe, converts the alcohol into acid.
• Source: fruits, grains, alcoholic beverages or other fermentable materials
• History: Around 5000 BC the Babylonians were using the fruit of the date
palm to make wine and vinegar to be used as food and a preservative or
pickling agent. Vinegar residues were found in urns from ancient Egypt and
have been traced to 3000 BC.
 VINEGAR
• The first written history of vinegar in China dates to 1200 BC. During
biblical times, vinegar was used to flavor foods, drunk as an energizing
drink, and used as a medicine. It’s mentioned in both the old and new
testaments. In the Book of Ruth (Ruth 2:14), after working hard gleaning
barley in the fields, Ruth was invited by Boaz to eat bread and dip it in
vinegar.
• Present Application: Culinary, Folk medicine and research, Diet and
metabolism, Agricultural and horticultural.
 ALCOHOL
• Properties: Alcohols generally have higher boiling points in comparison to
other hydrocarbons having equal molecular masses. It's solubility of
alcohol in water is governed by the hydroxyl group present. The hydroxyl
group in alcohol is involved in the formation of intermolecular hydrogen
bonding. Thus, hydrogen bonds are formed between water and alcohol
molecules which make alcohol soluble in water. However, the alkyl group
attached to the hydroxyl group is hydrophobic in nature. Thus, the
solubility of alcohol decreases with the increase in the size of the alkyl
group. Alcohols react with active metals such as sodium, potassium etc. to
form the corresponding alkoxide.
• Source: Natural sources: Plants, Egg yolk, retinol (found in the fish liver
oil)
 ALCOHOL
• History: Fermented grain, fruit juice and honey have been used to make
alcohol (ethyl alcohol or ethanol) for thousands of years. Fermented
beverages existed in early Egyptian civilization, and there is evidence of an
early alcoholic drink in China around 7000 B.C. In India, an alcoholic
beverage called sura, distilled from rice, was in use between 3000 and 2000
B.C. The Babylonians worshiped a wine goddess as early as 2700 B.C. In
Greece, one of the first alcoholic beverages to gain popularity was mead, a
fermented drink made from honey and water. Greek literature is full of
warnings against excessive drinking
• Present Application: alcoholic beverages, fuel additive, solvent, detergents,
disinfectant
 LYCOPENE
• Properties: Lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene assembled from eight
isoprene units. It is a member of the carotenoid family of compounds, and
because it consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen, is also a
carotene.Lycopene absorbs all but the longest wavelengths of visible light,
so it appears red. When exposed to light or heat, lycopene can undergo
isomerization to any of a number of cis-isomers, which have a bent rather
than linear shape.
• Sources: Fruits and Vegetable
• History: Lycopene got its name from Tomatoes classification species
Lycopersicon Esculentum. Procedures to isolate Lycopene was reported in
1910. The structure of it was determined in 1931.
• Present Application: Preventing heart disease, "hardening of the arteries"
(atherosclerosis); and cancer of the prostate, breast, lung, bladder, ovaries,
colon, and pancreas. Lycopene is also used for treating human papilloma
virus (HPV) infection, which is a major cause of uterine cancer. Some
people also use lycopene for cataracts and asthma
 CAFFEINE
• Properties: Pure anhydrous caffeine is a bitter-tasting white odorless
powder with a melting point of 235–238 °C. Caffeine is moderately soluble
in water at room temperature (2 g/100 mL), but very soluble in boiling
water (66 g/100 mL).
• Sources: Plants (Cocoa bean, Kola Nuts, Coffee bean)
• History: According to Chinese legend, the Chinese emperor Shennong,
reputed to have reigned in about 3000 BCE, inadvertently discovered tea
when he noted that when certain leaves fell into boiling water, a fragrant
and restorative drink resulted. Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's Cha
Jing, a famous early work on the subject of tea.
 CAFFEINE
• The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the
coffee plant appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi
monasteries of the Yemenin southern Arabia. From Mocha, coffee spread to
Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of
the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Middle East, coffee drinking
spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were
transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.
• Present Application: Caffeine is most commonly used to improve mental
alertness, but it has many other uses. Caffeine is used by mouth or rectally
in combination with painkillers (such as aspirin and acetaminophen) and a
chemical called ergotamine for treating migraineheadaches. It is also used
with painkillers for simple headaches and preventing and treating
headaches after epidural anesthesia.
 BUTANE
• Properties: When oxygen is plentiful, butane burns to form carbon dioxide
and water vapor; when oxygen is limited, carbon (soot) or carbon
monoxide may also be formed.
• Sources: Natural gas deep in the earth's surface
• History: Butane was discovered along the lines of propane. In this case, the
discovery became known as "LPG." LPG stands for Liquefied petroleum
gas that contains propane and butane. It was discovered by Dr. Walter
Snellings in Pittsburgh. A person complained that when they purchased a
gallon of petrol, they got home and only half was left. They wanted to
know where it all went in such a short period of time. So, Dr.Snellings was
determined to figure out the solution to this problem. The result ended up
being that the hydrocarbons has the ability to evaporate. Dr. Walter
Snellings set up an experiment with a water heater in hopes to separate the
hydrocarbons. He made sure that they wouldn't end up evaporating. As a
result, he created liquefied petroleum gas.
• Present Application: Cigarette lighter, a heater, or a Stove fuel/Cooking
Torches