Cell Biology Part I

Cell Biology – PART I
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Contents:
Cell biology part I: Structure and Functions of cell and cell organelles:
Introduction to cell biology
Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cells, and Viruses
Water, Salts and Ions & Biological molecules,
Plasma membrane, Nucleus, Mitochondria, Ribosomes,

Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi Complex, Lysosomes,
Microbodies, Centrioles, Cytoskeleton.
Summary
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Introduction to cell biology
Definition of Cell biology (formerly known as Cytology):
is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their structure, the organelles they
contain, interactions with their environment, their physiological
properties, their life cycle, division and death.
 All living organisms are made out of cell.
 Cells are smallest and fundamental unit of life.
 Single celled organisms and multi- celled organisms.
Bacteria Archea Yeast - Fungi Human red blood cells Human skin cells Plant cells
Source: Cell and Molecular Biology, Sixth edition, © 2008 W. H. freeman and Company
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Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cells…..
Two cell types - The Three Domain System
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Prokaryotes – Domain Bacteria
 Single cell organisms
 No nucleus, no compartments
 Peptidoglycan cell walls
 Binary fission
 For energy, use organic chemicals, inorganic
chemicals, or photosynthesis
Prokaryotes – Domain Archea

 Lack peptidoglycan
 Live in extreme environments
 Include:
Methanogens
Extreme halophiles
Extreme thermophiles
 Role in disease not understood—this
group has only recently been
discovered
Thermophiles growing in Yellowstone hot springs.
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Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells
 Single-celled bacteria and archaeans
 No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles
 Chromosome in nucleoid
 Generally single chromosome (a circular DNA); many also contain plasmids
 Reproduction mainly by prokaryotic fission
 Smallest, most widely distributed, numerous, and metabolically diverse
organisms: Autotrophs and heterotrophs
 Typical Cell structures:

 Cell wall
 Outermost protective capsule or slime layer
 One or more flagella
 Pili
 Cell shapes: Spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), spirals (spirilla)

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Structure of Prokaryotic cell
 Pili – hair-like structures usually found in Gram neg. bacteria. Help the
bacteria stick to surfaces. Also forms conjugation bridge
 Chromosome – a single loop of DNA that is folded on itself

-- controls the cell’s function
 Nucleoid – the region of the cytoplasm where the DNA is found
 Plasmid – an accessory loop of DNA – small contains only a few genes - can
be responsible for: conjugation, antibiotic resistance, unique
metabolic properties – like the ability to use hydrocarbons
 Capsule – found outside some bacteria stores nutrients and protects the
bacteria from changing environmental conditions
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The Structure of a Prokaryote: Eubacterium
ribosome
cell
membrane
cell wall
peptidoglycan
flagellum ‘naked’ DNA pili

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Domain Eukaryotes
 Plantae: multicellular plants, cellulose cell wall, photosynthesis
 Fungi: Chitin cell wall, Use organic chemicals for energy, Molds and mushrooms
are multicellular consisting of masses of mycelia, which are composed of
filaments called hyphae
 Protists: Protozoa, motile via pseudopods, cilia, or flagella, Algae.
 Animalia: Multicellular animals, Parasitic flatworms and round worms etc.
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Structure of eukaryotic cell www. .uni-rostock.de
The Cell Nucleus only in
eukaryotic cells.
The ER modifies proteins, makes macromolecules, Contains most of the
and transfers substances throughout the cell. cell's genetic material.
Ribosome translates
mRNA into a polypeptide
chain (e.g., a protein).
Mitochondrion
manufactures adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), which
is used as a source of • circa 100 trillion (1014) cells in a human organism
energy. • 200 different forms of cells
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Ulf Schmitz, Introduction to molecular and cell biology 9
The Plasma membrane:
 separates cell from the environment
 controls what enters and leaves selectively - permeable
 phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
The Nucleus:
 The “control center” or “brain” of the cell
 nuclear envelope
double membrane has pores

 nucleolus
 made of RNA & Protein
 place where ribosomes are made
 contains the chromosomes - made of DNA & proteins; carries genetic information
The Cytoplasm
 Fluid-filled interior of cell
 Cell’s “workspace”
 Contains various cell organelles
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Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

Very minute in size Fairly large in size
Nuclear region (nucleoid) not Nuclear material surrounded by a

surrounded by a nuclear membrane nuclear membrane
Single chromosome present More than one chromosome

present
Nucleolus absent Nucleolus present
Membrane bound cell organelles Membrane bound cell organelles

are absent are present
Cell division by fission or budding Cell division by mitosis or meiosis
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Virus
Characteristics of Viruses
 Viruses are the smallest biological particle.
 They are not biological organisms so they are not classified in any kingdom of
living things.
 Obligatory Intra cellular Parasite
- Must reproduce(replicate) inside a host
 Structure
- Nucleic Acid – DNA or RNA
- Protein coat – called a capsid
- Envelope – some contain a layer of membrane
taken from a host cell
 Mutate Rapidly
 Host Specific
- can only infect one type of cell
 Small – from 20nm to 250nm ------ most are too small to be seen with a light
microscope
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 Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria - they are responsible for
transduction in bacteria
 Retroviruses are the virus that contain RNA and not DNA
-- to be able to take over a host cell, the retrovirus must be able to convert the
RNA into DNA
- to accomplish the conversion, retroviruses insert an enzyme called Reverse
Transcriptase into the host cell
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Water, Salts, Ions & Biological Molecules
Water  abundant molecule in cells  70% or more of total cell
mass.
Cells: Water + Inorganic ions + carbon-containing molecules.
The interactions between water and the other constituents of

cells are of central importance in biological chemistry.
Water  Polar molecule: Hydrogen atoms have a slight positive

charge. Oxygen has a slight negative charge.
It can form hydrogen bonds with each other or with other polar
molecules, and with ions.
Ions and polar molecules are readily soluble in water 

hydrophilic
Non-polar molecules are poorly soluble in an aqueous

environment  hydrophobic.
Such interactions of polar and non-polar molecules

with water and with each other play crucial roles in the
formation of biological structures, such as cell membranes.
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Water, Salts, Ions & Biological Molecules ….
 The inorganic ions of the cell: Na+, K+,, Mg2+, Ca2+, HPO42-, Cl-
, and HCO3- constitute 1% or less of the cell mass.
 These ions are involved in cell metabolism, and thus play

critical roles in cell function.
 The organic molecules are the unique constituents of cells.
 Most of these organic compounds belong to one of four

classes of molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids.
 Proteins, nucleic acids, and most carbohydrates are

macromolecules (polymers of amino acids, nucleotides, and
simple sugars, respectively) & constitute 80 to 90% of the
dry weight of most cells.
 Lipids are the other major constituent of cells.
 The remainder of the cell mass is composed of a variety of

small organic molecules, including macromolecular
precursors.
 The basic chemistry of cells: the structures and functions of

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major classes of organic molecules.
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 The carbohydrates: Simple sugars + polysaccharides.
 Simple sugars: glucose, are the major nutrients of cells.
 Polysaccharides: Storage forms of sugars and form structural

components of the cell.
 Polysaccharides + shorter polymers of sugars act as  receptor

molecules.
 The basic formula for these molecules is (CH2O)n.
 The name carbohydrate is derived (C= “carbo” and H2O=

“hydrate”).
 The six-carbon (n= 6) sugar glucose (C6H12O6)  important in

cells.
 Monosaccharide can be joined together by dehydration reactions

 glycosidic bond
 If only a few sugars are joined together resulting polymer 

oligosaccharide.
 If a large number (hundreds or thousands) of sugars  Polymers

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macromolecules
 Lipids have three major roles in cells: energy storage + cell

membranes + cell signaling molecules (steroid hormones).
 They are made up of : C, H & O: Monomer of fatty acids & glycerol.
 The simplest lipids are fatty acids: Unsaturated & saturated fatty
acids.
 Fatty acids are stored in the form of triacylglycerols, or fats  3 fatty

acids + glycerol molecule  efficient form of energy storage than
carbohydrates.
 Phospholipids = 2 fatty acids joined to a polar head group and

are amphipathic molecules, part water-soluble and part water-
insoluble.
 Glycerol phospholipids = 2 fatty acids  bound to carbon atoms in

glycerol, as in triacylglycerols. And the third carbon of glycerol is
bound to a phosphate group.
 Sphingomyelin, the only non-glycerol phospholipid in cell

membranes.
 Many cell membranescontain glycolipids and cholesterol.
 Cholesterol: 4 hydrocarbon rings (hydrophobic) and the hydroxyl

Regents(OH) group (hydrophilic) amphipathic.
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 The nucleic acids—DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides, which consist of 2 purine
(A & G) and 2 pyrimidine (C & T/U) bases linked to phosphorylated sugars.
 Different types of ribonucleic acid (RNA) participate in a number of cellular

activities(mRNA, rRNA and tRNA).
 Nucleic acids are thus uniquely capable of directing their own self-replication, allowing
them to function as the fundamental informational molecules of the cell.
 The information carried by DNA and RNA directs the synthesis of specific proteins, which
control most cellular activities
 Nucleotides: adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP), which is the principal form of chemical

energy within cells.
 Other nucleotides similarly function as carriers of either energy or reactive chemical

groups in a wide variety of metabolic reactions. In addition, some nucleotides (e.g., cyclic
AMP) are important signaling molecules within cells.
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 Proteins are the polymer also called a polypeptide
 Monomers = amino acids- 20 different types of amino acids used to make proteins.
 A protein’s shape is determined by the order that amino acids are joined in.
 The shape of a protein determines its function.
 The roles of proteins include serving as structural components of cells and tissues, acting
in the transport and storage of small molecules (e.g., the transport of oxygen by
hemoglobin), transmitting information between cells (e.g., proteinhormones), and
providing a defense against infection (e.g., antibodies). The most fundamental property of
proteins, however, is their ability to act as enzymes,
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Plasma membrane
 separates cell from the environment
 controls what enters and leaves selectively - permeable
 phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
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Fluid mosaic model of Plasmamembrane:
 Currently accepted model of the cell membrane
 Proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972.
 Fluid: The lipids and proteins can drift throughout the membrane
 Membrane is NOT stiff/rigid but Cholesterol makes it stronger by limiting the
movement of phospholipids.
 Mosaic: Lipid bilayer has membrane proteins “stuck” in it.

 Peripheral proteins attached to the surface of the membrane
 Integral proteins: Go through the membrane (both sides)
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Passive transport: Selective Permeability of the Cell Membrane
PT: Diffusion of a substance that does NOT require the

input of energy by the cell
3 types of passive transport:
 Diffusion: Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules diffuse

directly through the lipid bilayer.
Examples: O2, CO2, steroids
Osmosis: Simple diffusion of water from its higher

concentration to lower concentration
across semipermeable membrane.
AQUAPORINS
Facilitated diffussion: Small polar molecules and

ions diffuse through passive
transport proteins.
Examples: Glucose
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Active transport: Selective Permeability of the Cell Membrane
Active transport proteins move substances

across the PM against their concentration
gradient.
Requires energy (ATP)
Active transport proteins are highly

selective
Active transport is needed for proper

functioning of nerves and muscles
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Bulk transport: Selective Permeability of the Cell Membrane
BT: Vesicles are used to transport large particles across the PM.
Requires energy
Types:
 Exocytosis
 Endocytosis: Phagocytosis (Cell eating), pinocytosis (Cell drinking),
receptor-mediated endocytosis
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Nucleus, Nuclear envelope & Nucleoplasm
Eukaryotic cells (plant, animal, fungal, and protistan) are characterized by
having a membrane-bound cell nucleus.
The nucleus is a large organelle and contains most of a cell’s genetic material.
The nucleus is usually the largest organelle within the cell.
The nucleus comprises:

The Nucleoplasm: a highly viscous liquid,
Almost all the cell’s genetic material.
A double layered nuclear membrane
The nucleolus
Almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis occur in the nucleus.
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Nucleus, Nuclear envelope & Nucleoplasm…..
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Nucleolus
 The nucleolus is NOT a membrane-bound organelle.
 It’s just an area of the chromsomes that is very active-it’s producing the rRNA
needed for ribosomes.
 It is made up of protein and rDNA
 Builds ribosome subunits from rRNA & proteins
 The subunits then exit through nuclear pores to cytoplasm & combine to form
functional ribosomes
large subunit
small
subunit
ribosome
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Euchromatin and heterochromatin
 During interphase, some of the DNA remains condensed as you would
normally see it in metaphase. (centrosomes, and some other regions of the
chromosome).
 This is called heterochromatin to distinguish it from euchromatin which

condenses and relaxes with the cell cycle.
 Heterochromatin is rarely transcribed.
 Heterochromatin is classified into two groups: (i) Constitutive and (ii)

Facultative.
 Constitutive heterochromatin remains permanently in the heterochromatic

stage, i.e., it does not revert to the euchromatic stage.
 In contrast, facultative heterochromatin consists of euchromatin that takes on

the staining and compactness characteristics of heterochromatin during some
phase of development.
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2 nm
Structure of Nucleosome DNA double helix
Chromatin structure is based on

successive levels of DNA packing.
Packing is the role of histone proteins.
DNA
Five types of histone proteins form a 10 nm
complex with DNA, resembling “beads
on a string.”
Nucleosome
These beads, or nucleosomes, form
the basic unit of DNA packing. H1
Nucleosomes
The nucleosome bead consists of
DNA wrapped around a protein core:
two molecules of each of four types
of histone (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4).
A fifth histone, H1, attaches near the

bead and organizes the next level of
packing. 30 nm
Histone H1 helps the beaded string to

30 nm chromatin fiber
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Lampbrush chromosomes
 Chromosomes which are extremely large compared to normal chromosomes are called
giant chromosomes occur in some animal cells.
 Two types of giant chromosomes are known as lampbrush and polytene chromosomes.
 LAMPBRUSH chromosomes occur in the oocytes (germcells in the ovary) of amphibians

and in some insects.
 They are extremely large synapsed homologous chromosomes which can be seen in the
diplotene stage of prophase-I in meiosis.
 They measure about 1500 to 2000 in length.
 A lampbrush chromosome consists of an axis from which paired loops extend in opposite
directions, giving the appearance of a lamp brush.
 The axis consists of chromomeres (nucleosomes) and interchromomere regions.
 The loops consist of transcriptionally active DNA which can synthesize large amount of
mRNA, necessary for the synthesis of yolk.
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Polytene chromosomes
 These are giant chromosomes found in the salivary gland cells of the fruitfly Drosophila.
They are many times larger than the normal chromosomes reaching a length of 2000
and are visible even under a compound microscope.
 The polytene chromosomes appear to contain five long and one short arm radiating from
a central point called chromocentre.
 It is formed by the fusion of centromeres of all the eight chromosomes found in the cell.
 Of the 6 arms, the short arm represents the fused IV chromosome and the longest
represents the fused sex chromosomes.
 These arms contain numerous chromonemata resulting from repeated replication of DNA,
without separation into daughter chromosomes.
 The arms show characteristic dark bands and light bands.
 The dark bands are euchromatic regions.
 Some of the dark bands temporarily swell up and form enlargements called chromosomal
puffs or Balbiani rings.
 These regions contain actively transcribing DNA involved in the synthesis of RNA types.
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Polytene Chromosomes…..
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Mitochondria
 Almost all eukaryotic cells have mitochondria
 there may be 1 very large mitochondrion or 100s to 1000s of
individual mitochondria
 number of mitochondria is correlated with aerobic metabolic activity

 more activity = more energy
 needed = more mitochondria
 All mitochondria you have in your cells MOTHER

 The outer and inner membranes and crests may be considered as fluid
membranes.
 The matrix is gel like and contains a variety of soluble proteins, several
ribosomes and a circular DNA.
 Besides, it contains enzymes for citric acid cycle, lipid and amino
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Ultrastructure of Mitochondria
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Ultrastructure of Mitochondria…
 2 Membranes +2 Compartments
 2 membranes
 smooth outer membrane
 highly folded inner membrane
 Cristae
 Increases surface area for membrane bound enzymes that
make ATP
 More enzymes = more ATP
 fluid-filled space between 2 membranes

 Outer compartment between outer membrane and inner membrane
 Inner compartment within inner membrane: internal fluid-filled space
 mitochondrial matrix
 DNA, ribosomes & enzymes
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Functions: Kreb’s cycle & ETS
 cellular respiration
 Catabolic process
 Break down
 generate ATP
 from breakdown of sugars, fats & other fuels

 in the presence of oxygen
 break down larger molecules into smaller to generate
energy = catabolism
 generate energy in presence of O2 = aerobic respiration
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Functions: Kreb’s cycle & ETS........
Cellular respiration
2 ATP + 2 ATP + ~34 ATP

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Functions: Kreb’s cycle & ETS........
Pyruvate from Intermembrane

Inner H+
cytoplasm + space
mitochondrial H
membrane
Electron
transport
C system
Q
NADH e- 2. Electrons H+
provide energy
1. Electrons are harvested to pump
Acetyl-CoA and carried to the e-
transport system. protons across
the membrane.
NADH e-
H2O
Krebs e- 3. Oxygen joins 1 O
FADH2 with protons to
cycle 2 +2 O2
form water.
2H+
CO2 H+
ATP H+
ATP
ATP
4. Protons diffuse back in
down their concentration ATP
Mitochondrial gradient, driving the synthase
matrix synthesis of ATP.
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Mitochondria as semiautonomous organelle
 Mitochondria are semi-autonomous in that they are only
partially dependent on the cell to replicate and grow.
 Time of division is governed by nucleus and physiological

processes/stress.
 They have their own DNA, ribosomes and can make their own
proteins.
 Similar to bacteria, mitochondria have circular DNA and

replicate by a reproductive process called fission.
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large
subunit
Ribosomes
 Structure
 Made of rRNA & protein small
subunit
 2 ribosomal subunits combine
 Function
 Make proteins 0.08mm
Ribosomes
Rough
ER
Smooth
ER
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Ribosomes….: Types
 Free ribosomes
 suspended in cytosol
 synthesize proteins that function in cytosol
 Bound ribosomes
 attached to endoplasmic reticulum
 synthesize proteins for
 export to other locations
 Or for inclusion in membranes
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Structure
 Hollow membrane connected to
nuclear envelope & extends
throughout cell
 Function
 processes proteins
 That means they alter proteins to
help them on their way to
becoming fully functional
 manufactures membranes
(membrane factory)
 synthesis & hydrolysis of many

compounds
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Endoplasmic reticulum…: Types
rough smooth
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Endoplasmic reticulum…: Smooth ER
 Function: Membrane production
 Specialized function in muscle cells
 Specialized smooth ER in muscle cells facilitates uptake and release of
calcium ions in muscle cells which is critical to muscle contraction.
 Many metabolic processes

 synthesis
 synthesize lipids
 oils, phospholipids, steroids & sex hormones
 hydrolysis
 hydrolyze glycogen into glucose
 in liver
 detoxify drugs & poisons
 in liver
 ex. alcohol & barbiturates
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Endoplasmic reticulum…: Rough ER
 Produce proteins for export out of cell
 protein secreting cells
 packaged into transport vesicles for export
 Before leaving Rough ER Proteins usually get an “add on” Carbohydrate

GLYCOPROTEIN
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Golgi Apparatus: Structure
Stack of flattened, hollow sacks called cisternae
 Have distinct ends or “faces”
 “cis” face
 Receives transport vesicles from ER
 “trans” face
 Sends modified proteins away from Golgi in secretory vesicles
 Toward cell membrane
 Modification of proteins occurs as they pass from one “pancake” to the next
 Each pancake has different enzymes that do different things to molecules
 Much like an assembly line
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Golgi Apparatus (body/complex)
 Function
 finishes, sorts, tags & ships cell products
 like “UPS shipping department”
 In charge of SECRETION
 Process in which a cell exports a USEFUL product
 ships products in vesicles

 membrane sacs
 “ trucks” secretory
vesicles
Vesicle transport
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Putting it together… Making proteins
nucleus cell
nuclear pore membrane
protein secreted
rough ER
ribosome
vesicle
proteins
smooth ER transport Golgi

vesicle apparatus
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cytoplasm
All of this = Endomembrane System
 Components include:
 Nuclear envelope
 ER
 Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles
 Plasma membrane
 These different components are related to each other either by

 Physical continuity (physically connected to each other)
 OR by transfer of tiny membrane-bound segments called

vesicles
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Lysosomes
 Structure
 vesicles containing digestive enzymes
 synthesized by r ER, transferred to Golgi
 Found in animal cells
 2 Functions
 little “stomach” of the cell
 digests macromolecules
 “clean up crew” of the cell

 cleans up broken down organelles
 Apoptosis
 Autophagy
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Microbodies/ Peroxisomes
 A crystalline structure inside a sac which also contains amorphous gray
material
 Bound by a single membrane that separates their contents from the

cytosol.
 Their membrane also contains membrane proteins critical for various

functions
 Other digestive enzyme sacs

 in both animals & plants
 breakdown fatty acids to sugars
 easier to transport & use as energy source

 detoxify cell
 detoxifies alcohol & other poisons

 produce peroxide (H2O2)
 must breakdown H2O2  H2O

g  Contain an enzyme that does this CATALASE
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Centrioles
 Short, hollow cylinders
Composed of 27 microtubules
Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping triplets
 One pair per animal cell
Located in centrosome of animal cells
Oriented at right angles to each other
Separate during mitosis to determine plane of division
 May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and flagella
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Cytoskeleton
 Network of fibers extending through the cytoplasm
 Organizes the structures and activities of the cell
 Protein fibers
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules
Function
 structural support
maintains shape of cell
provides anchorage for organelles
Movement of structures within the cell

Chromsomes during mitosis
Vesicle transport
motility
cell locomotion
cilia, flagella, etc.
regulation
organizes structures
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Cytoskeleton: Microtubules
 Straight hollow rods
 Made of tubulin – a protein
 Microtubules elongate by adding tubulin molecules to the ends
of the tube
 Can be disassembled and reassembled elsewhere
 Provide:
 Shape; support
 “tracks”
 guide secretory vesicles to plasma membrane
 Separation of chromosomes during cell division
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Cytoskeleton: Microtubules
 Centrosomes and centrioles
 Microtubules grow out from a centrosome near
the nucleus
 Within centrosomes are centrioles
 May help organize microtubule assembly (SPINDLE
FIBERS) to allow for movement of chromosomes
 Centrioles are not found in plant cells
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Cytoskeleton : Microtubules
 Cilia and Flagella
 Movement of cells
 Movement of substances over cells and tissues
 Cilia vs. flagella
 Flagella are longer and tend to be individual structures
 Cilia tend to be in larger numbers and shorter than flagella
 Also can coat organ surfaces – like your windpipe, fallopian tubes, etc.
 Beating patterns differ
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Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments
 Solid rods
 Made of actin protein
 Bear tension (pulling forces)
 Support cell shape – 3D network just inside cell membrane
 Responsible for Cleavage furrow in cell division
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Intermediate Filaments
 Thicker than microfilament, thinner than microtubule
 Bear tension
 keratin family of proteins
 More permanent
 Reinforcement of shape
 Fix position of organelles
 Nucleus in a cage
 When shape is really important…
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Summary
 There are two basic types of cells: prokaryotic cells such as bacteria that have
no nucleus, and eukaryotic cells such as those in plants and animals that have
true nuclei. Besides these, there biological materials called Viruses.
 Eukaryotic cells also have organelles, each of which is specialized to perform a

specific function within the cell.
 The Plasma Membrane

 The Nucleus
 Mitochondria
 The Ribosome
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
 The Cytoskeleton
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Summary
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Mindmap view
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References:
Cell and Molecular Biology, S.C. Rastogi (2003), New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Molecular Biology, M. P. Arora (2000), Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai.
Cell Physiology , A. C. Giese,(2003), 5th Edition, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia PA, 1979.
Cell Biology, C. B. Pawar (2004),, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai
Cell and Molecular Biology, De Robertis and De Robertis, (2000) Lippincott Williams and Wilkins publishers
Cell Biology, Genetic s, Molecular Biology, Evolution and Ecology, Verma and Agarwal (2004), S. Chand publication,
New Delhi.
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/organelles/
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/insideacell/
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/membranes/
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/vesicles/
Regents Biology
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References:
http://www.bacterialphylogeny.info/eukaryotes.html
http://books.google.co.in/books?id=yzwCTqESNGEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21523/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21665/#A208
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9941/#A153
http://www.scacm.org/free/Cryopreservative_nunc.pdf
http://www.photobiology.info/Oleinick.html
http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/biology/MembranePage/index2.html
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/macampbell/111/memb-swf/membranes.swf
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP1101
http://www.brookscole.com/chemistry_d/templates/student_resources/shared_resources/animations/oxidative/oxidativephosphorylation.swf
http://www.johnkyrk.com/mitochondrion.swf
http://www.yellowtang.org/animations/nucleus_endo.swf
http://www.yellowtang.org/animations/nuclear_envelope.swf
http://uccpbank.k12hsn.org/courses/CPBiology/bio_3_2_1_2.swf (Euchromatin & heterochromatin)
http://www.travismulthaupt.com/page1/page5/files/19_02DNAPacking_A.swf Nucleosome
http://www.core.org.cn/mirrors/MITE/AP%20Biology%20I/course%20files/multimedia/lesson14/0802ap_3.swf Nucleosome
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26858/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21743/
http://www.yellowtang.org/animations/nucleus_endo.swf
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp04/0402s.swf
http://www.biologymad.com/resources/golgi.swf
http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animations/actin_myosin/index.html
http://glencoe.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0078617022/164155/00035804.swf
http://www.johnkyrk.com/golgiAlone.swf
Regents Biology
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http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/0402s.swf?SGWID=0-0-45-752210-0
THANK YOU
AP Biology
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Cell Biology Part I

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Cell Biology Part I

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Cell Biology – PART I

Introduction to cell biology

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cells, and Viruses

Water, Salts and Ions & Biological molecules,

Plasma membrane, Nucleus, Mitochondria, Ribosomes,

 All living organisms are made out of cell.

 Cells are smallest and fundamental unit of life.

 Single celled organisms and multi- celled organisms.

Prokaryotes – Domain Archea

 Typical Cell structures:

 Outermost protective capsule or slime layer

 One or more flagella

 Cell shapes: Spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), spirals (spirilla)

 Chromosome – a single loop of DNA that is folded on itself

 Nucleoid – the region of the cytoplasm where the DNA is found

flagellum ‘naked’ DNA pili

 Plantae: multicellular plants, cellulose cell wall, photosynthesis

 Protists: Protozoa, motile via pseudopods, cilia, or flagella, Algae.

 Animalia: Multicellular animals, Parasitic flatworms and round worms etc.

 place where ribosomes are made

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

Nuclear region (nucleoid) not Nuclear material surrounded by a

Single chromosome present More than one chromosome

Membrane bound cell organelles Membrane bound cell organelles

 Obligatory Intra cellular Parasite

- Must reproduce(replicate) inside a host

RNA into DNA

- to accomplish the conversion, retroviruses insert an enzyme called Reverse

Transcriptase into the host cell

Cells: Water + Inorganic ions + carbon-containing molecules.

The interactions between water and the other constituents of

Water  Polar molecule: Hydrogen atoms have a slight positive

Ions and polar molecules are readily soluble in water 

Non-polar molecules are poorly soluble in an aqueous

Such interactions of polar and non-polar molecules

 These ions are involved in cell metabolism, and thus play

 The organic molecules are the unique constituents of cells.

 Most of these organic compounds belong to one of four

 Proteins, nucleic acids, and most carbohydrates are

 Lipids are the other major constituent of cells.

 The remainder of the cell mass is composed of a variety of

 The basic chemistry of cells: the structures and functions of

 The carbohydrates: Simple sugars + polysaccharides.

 Simple sugars: glucose, are the major nutrients of cells.

 Polysaccharides: Storage forms of sugars and form structural

 Polysaccharides + shorter polymers of sugars act as  receptor

 The basic formula for these molecules is (CH2O)n.

 The name carbohydrate is derived (C= “carbo” and H2O=

 The six-carbon (n= 6) sugar glucose (C6H12O6)  important in

 Monosaccharide can be joined together by dehydration reactions

 If only a few sugars are joined together resulting polymer 

 If a large number (hundreds or thousands) of sugars  Polymers

 Lipids have three major roles in cells: energy storage + cell

 They are made up of : C, H & O: Monomer of fatty acids & glycerol.

 Fatty acids are stored in the form of triacylglycerols, or fats  3 fatty

 Phospholipids = 2 fatty acids joined to a polar head group and

 Glycerol phospholipids = 2 fatty acids  bound to carbon atoms in

 Sphingomyelin, the only non-glycerol phospholipid in cell

 Many cell membranescontain glycolipids and cholesterol.

 Cholesterol: 4 hydrocarbon rings (hydrophobic) and the hydroxyl

 Different types of ribonucleic acid (RNA) participate in a number of cellular

 Nucleotides: adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP), which is the principal form of chemical

 Other nucleotides similarly function as carriers of either energy or reactive chemical

 The shape of a protein determines its function.