MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Mechanical Engineering Department

ME 445
Integrated Manufacturing Systems

GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND

CELLULAR MANUFACTURING

1
 BATCH MANUFACTURING

IS A DOMINANT MANUFACTURING
ACTIVITY IN THE WORLD,
GENERATING A GREAT DEAL OF
INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT

IT ACCOUNTS
60% - 80%
OF ALL MANUFACTURING ACTIVITIES

2
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
BATCH MANUFACTURING:

High level of product variety

Small manufacturing lot size

3
Time on Moving and waiting
machine 95%
5%

Cutting Positioning, loading, gauging,

less than idle, etc.
30% 70%

4
 WHAT IS GROUP TECHNOLOGY?

Group technology (GT) is a philosophy that

implies the notion of recognizing and exploiting
similarities in three different ways:
1. By performing like activities together
2. By standardizing similar tasks
3. By efficiently storing and retrieving
information about recurring problems

5
Large manufacturing system can be
decomposed into smaller subsystems
of part families based on similarities in

1. design attributes and

2. manufacturing features

6
DESIGN ATTRIBUTES:
• part configuration (round or prismatic)
• dimensional envelope (length to diameter
ratio)
• surface integrity (surface roughness,
dimensional tolerances)
• material type
• raw material state (casting, forging, bar
stock, etc.)

7
PART MANUFACTURING FEATURES:
• operations and operation sequences
(turning, milling, etc.)
• batch sizes
• machine tools
• cutting tools
• work holding devices
• processing times

8
An essential aspect of the
integration of CAD and CAM is
the integration of information used
by engineering and manufacturing
and all the other departments in a
firm.

9
Group technology emphasis on
part families based on similarities
in design attributes and
manufacturing, therefore GT
contributes to the integration of
CAD and CAM.

10
The Basic Key Features for a Successful Group
Technology Applications:

•Group Layout
•Short Cycle Flow Control
•A Planned Machine Loading

11
 Group Layout
In most of today’s factories it is possible to
divide all the made components into families
and all the machines into groups, in such a way
that all the parts in each family can be
completely processed in one group only.
The tree main types of layout are
•Line Layout
•Group Layout
•Functional Layout 12
 Line Layout
•Line Layout is used at present in simple
process industries, in continuous assembly, and
for mass production of components required in
very large quantities.

13
 Functional Layout
•In Functional Layout, all machines of the
same type are laid out together in the same
section under the same foreman. Each foreman
and his team of workers specialize in one
process and work independently.This type of
layout is based on process specialization.

14
 Group Layout
•In Group Layout, each foreman and his team
specialize in the production of one list of parts
and co-operate in the completion of common
task. This type of layouts based on component
specialization.

15
The Difference between group and functional layout:

16
 Families
The word ‘Family’ is used as a name for
any list of similar parts. The families
used with group layout are lists of parts
which are similar because they are all
made on the same group of machines.
This type of family is called a
‘Production Family’. However, not all
parts which are similar in shape will
appear in the same family.
17
 The other important features that is
important choosing the families;
• Manufacturing tolerances
• Required quantities
• Materials
• Special features, which will require the
use of different machines

18
 Groups
A group is a list of machines, selected for
layout together in one place, because it
contains all necessary facilities to complete
the processing of a given family of parts. A
family of parts can only be defined by relating
it to a particular group of machines, and a
group by relating it to a family. Groups vary
greatly in type and size, widely in the number
of machines and different machines types.

19
As group size is reduced, more types of
machine will be needed in more than one
group and there is an increased risk that
some new machines must be purchased.
Another factor in choosing the size of
group is the number of people who will be
employed in them.

20
Group technology begun by grouping parts
into families, based on their attributes.
There are three methods that can be used
to form part families:

– Manuel visual inspection

– Production flow analysis
– Classification and coding

21
Manual visual inspection
involves arranging a set of parts
into groups known as part
families by visually inspecting the
physical characteristics of the
parts.

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23
Manual visual inspection
– incorrect results
– human error
– different judgment by different people
– inexpensive
– least sophisticated
– good for small companies having
smaller number of parts

24
Production flow analysis: Parts that go
through common operations are grouped
into part families.

The machines used to perform these

common operations may be grouped as a
cell, consequently this technique can be
used in facility layout (factory layout)

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26
Coding methods: are employed in
classifying parts into part families

Coding refers to the process of assigning

symbols to the parts

The symbols represent design attributes

of parts or manufacturing features of
part families

27
The variations in codes resulting from the
way the symbols are assigned can be
grouped into three distinct type of codes:

– Monocode or hierarchical code

– Polycode or attribute
– Hybrid or mixed code

28
MONOCODE (HIERARCHICAL CODE)

• This coding system was originally

developed for biological classification in
18th century.

• The structure of monocode is like a tree

in which each symbol amplifies the
information provided in the previous digit.

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30
 The following figure illustrates the structure
of a monocode:

31
• A monocode (hierarchical code) provides
a large amount of information in a
relatively small number of digits
• useful for storage and retrieval of design-
related information such as part
geometry, material, size, etc.
• it is difficult to capture information on
manufacturing sequences in hierarchical
manner, so applicability of this code in
manufacturing is rather limited
32
 POLYCODE (ATTRIBUTE CODE):
• The code symbols are independent of each
other

• Each digit in specific location of the code

describes a unique property of the workpiece
– it is easy to learn and useful in manufacturing
situations where the manufacturing process have to
be described
– the length of a polycode may become excessive
because of its unlimited combinational features
33
34
Differences in information storage capacity
between monocode and polycode:

• Assume that a code consists of a five

symbols and that in each of the five code
fields the digits 0 to 9 are used. Determine
how many mutually exclusive
characteristics can potentially be stored in
the monocode and the polycode

35
 Number of characteristics may be stored
in a monocode:

101 + 102 + 103 + 104 + 105 =111110

Number of characteristics may be stored

in a polycode:

10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 50
36
 MIXED CODE (HYBRID CODE):

It is the mixture of both monocode and

polycode systems. Mixed code retains the
advantages of both systems. Most coding
systems use this code structure.

37
 MIXED CODE (HYBRID CODE):
• The first digit for example, might be used to
denote the type of part, such as gear. The next
five position might be reserved for a short
attribute code that would describe the attribute
of the gear. The next digit (7th digit) might be
used to designate another subgroup, such as
material, followed by another attribute code that
would describe the attributes.

• A code created by this manner would be

relatively more compact than a pure attribute
code while retaining the ability to easily identify
parts with specific characteristics.
38
 The OPITZ classification system:

• it is a mixed (hybrid) coding system

• developed by Opitz, Technical University of
Aachen, 1970
• it is widely used in industry
• it provides a basic framework for understanding
the classification and coding process
• it can be applied to machined parts, non-
machined parts (both formed and cast) and
purchased parts
• it considers both design and manufacturing
information
39
The Opitz coding system consists of three groups
of digits:
Form Supplementary Secondary
code code code
12345 6789 ABCD

part geometry information Production

and features relevant to processes and
relevant to part manufacturing production
design (polycode) sequences

40
41
 PART FAMILY FORMATION:
One of the primary uses of coding systems is to
develop part families.

Example: Consider the family of ferrous parts

formed by first three digits of Opitz form code; 131.

This implies that the attributes associated with the

family members are length/diameter ratio in the
range 0.5 to 3.0, all parts stepped to one end and
internal shape elements with threads.

A number of mathematical approaches have also

been developed to form part families using
classification and coding system.
42
43
 SELECTION OF CLASSIFICATION AND
CODING SYSTEMS

For the purpose of selecting or developing

your own code, it is important to understand
the attributes of classification and coding
systems.

44
 SELECTION OF CLASSIFICATION AND CODING
SYSTEMS

Some of the important classification and coding system

attributes include:

1. Flexibility for various applications such as part family

formation, process planning, costing, and purchasing
2. Accuracy, to provide correct information on parts
3. Expandability, to accommodate information on more part
attributes deemed important later on
4. Ease of learning
5. Ease of retrieval
6. Reliability and availability of software
7. Suitability for specific applications

45
SELECTION OF CLASSIFICATION AND
CODING SYSTEMS

Matching these attributes with the

objectives of an organization would be
helpful in selecting or developing a
coding system to meet organizational
needs.

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 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

Group technology is a management

strategy to help eliminate waste caused by
duplication of effort.

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 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

It affects all areas of a company, including:

• engineering
• equipment specification
• facilities planning
• process planning
• production control
• quality control
• tool design
• purchasing
• service
48
BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY
Some of the well-known tangible and intangible benefits
of implementing GT :
1. Engineering design

• Reduction in new parts design

• Reduction in the number of drawings through
standardization
• Reduction of drafting effort in new shop drawings
• Reduction of number of similar parts, easy retrieval
of similar functional parts, and identification of
substitute parts

49
 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

2. Layout planning

• Reduction in production floor space

required
• Reduced material-handling effort

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 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

3. Specification of equipment, tools, jigs, and

fixtures

• Standardization of equipment
• Implementation of cellular manufacturing
systems
• Significant reduction in up-front costs
incurred in the release of new parts for
manufacture
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 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

4. Manufacturing: process planning

• Reduction in setup time and production

time
• Alternative routing leading to improved
part routing
• Reduction in number of machining
operations and numerical control (NC)
programming time
52
 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY
5. Manufacturing: production control

• Reduced work-in-process inventory

• Easy identification of bottlenecks
• Improved material flow and reduced
warehousing costs
• Faster response to schedule changes
• Improved usage of jigs, fixtures, pallets, tools,
material handling, and manufacturing equipment

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 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

6. Manufacturing: quality control

• Reduction in number of defects leading to

reduced inspection effort
• Reduced scrap generation
• Better output quality
• Increased accountability of operators and
supervisors responsible for quality production,
making it easier to implement total quality control
concepts.
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 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY
7. Purchasing

• Coding of purchased part leading to

standardized rules for purchasing
• Economies in purchasing possible
because of accurate knowledge of raw
material requirements
• Reduced number of part and raw materials
• Simplified vendor evaluation procedures
leading to just-in-time purchasing
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 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

8. Customer service

• Accurate and faster cost estimates

• Efficient spare parts management, leading
to better customer service

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 CELLULAR MANUFACTURING

Cellular manufacturing is an application of

group technology in manufacturing in
which all or a portion of a firm’s
manufacturing system has been converted
into cells.

57
 CELLULAR MANUFACTURING

A manufacturing cell is a cluster of

machines or processes located in close
proximity and dedicated to the
manufacture of a family of parts.

The parts are similar in their processing

requirements, such as operations,
tolerances, and machine tool capacities
58
 The primary objectives in implementing a
cellular manufacturing system are to
reduce:

• setup times (by using part family tooling

and sequencing)
• flow times (by reducing setup and move
times and wait time for moves and using
smaller batch sizes)
• reduce inventories
• market response times
59
In addition, cells represent sociological
units that have more tendency to
teamwork. This means that motivation for
process improvements often arises
naturally in manufacturing cells.

Manufacturing cells are natural candidates

for just-in-time (JIT) implementation.

60
Functional and cellular layouts of an electronics plant:

61
 Cell Design

Design of cellular manufacturing system is

a complex exercise with broad implications
for an organization.

The cell design process involves issues

related to both system structure and
system operation

62
Structural issues include:

• Selection of part families and grouping of

parts into families
• Selection of machine and process
populations and grouping of these into
cells
• Selection of tools, fixtures, and pallets
• Selection of material-handling equipment
• Choice of equipment layout

63
 Issues related to procedures include:

• Detailed design of jobs

• Organization of supervisory and support
personnel around the cellular structure
• Formulation of maintenance and inspection
policies
• Design of procedures for production planning,
scheduling, control, and acquisition of related
software and hardware
• Modification of cost control and reward systems
• Outline of procedures for interfacing with the
remaining manufacturing system (in terms of
work flow and information, whether computer
controlled or not)
64
 Evaluation of Cell Design
Decisions

The evaluation of design decisions can be

categorized as related to either
• the system structure
or
• the system operation.

65
 Typical considerations related to the
system structure include:

• Equipment and tooling investment (low)

• Equipment relocation cost (low)
• Material-handling costs (low)
• Floor space requirements (low)
• Extent to which parts are completed in a
cell (high)
• Flexibility (high)
66
 Evaluations of cell system design are
incomplete unless they relate to the
operation of the system.

A few typical performance variables

related to system operation are:

• Equipment utilization (high)

• Work-in-process inventory (low)
• Queue lengths at each workstation (short)
• Job throughput time (short)
• Job lateness (low)
67
A major problem throughout the cell
design process is the necessity of
trading off against each other objectives
related to structural parameters and
performance variables.

68
For example, higher machine utilization
can be achieved if several cells route their
parts through the same machine. The
drawbacks are increased queuing and
control problems.

69
System cost and performance are affected by
every decision related to system structure and
system operation.

It is necessary to evaluate each important

design parameter and relate its performance to
pre-established criteria.

For example, structural variables such as

number of machines must be balanced against
operational variables such as machine
utilization and throughput time using
analytical and simulation approaches.
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CELL FORMATION APPROACHES

Machine - Component Group Analysis:

Machine - Component Group Analysis is

based on production flow analysis

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Production flow analysis involves four stages:

Stage 1: Machine classification.

Machines are classified on the basis of

operations that can be performed on them.
A machine type number is assigned to
machines capable of performing similar
operations.

72
Stage 2: Checking parts list and
production route information.

For each part, information on the

operations to be undertaken and the
machines required to perform each of
these operations is checked thoroughly.

73
Stage 3: Factory flow analysis.

This involves a micro-level examination of

flow of components through machines.
This, in turn, allows the problem to be
decomposed into a number of machine-
component groups.

74
Stage 4: Machine-component group
analysis.

An intuitive manual method is suggested

to manipulate the matrix to form cells.
However, as the problem size becomes
large, the manual approach does not work.
Therefore, there is a need to develop
analytical approaches to handle large
problems systematically.
75
 EXAMPLE:
Consider a problem of 4 machines and 6 parts.
Try to group them.
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6
M1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1
76
 Components
Machines 2 4 6 1 3 5
M1 1 1 1

M2 1 1 1

M3 1 1 1

M4 1 1 1

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 Rank Order Clustering Algorithm:

Rank Order Clustering Algorithm is a

simple algorithm used to form machine-
part groups.

78
Step 1: Assign binary weight and
calculate a decimal weight for each row and
column using the following formulas:


m
Decimal weight for row i = bip 2m-p
p=1


n
Decimal weight for column j = bpj2n p
p=1

79
Step 2: Rank the rows in order of
decreasing decimal weight values.

Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each

column.

Step 4: Continue preceding steps until

there is no change in the position of each
element in the row and the column.

80
EXAMPLE:
Consider a problem of 5 machines and 10 parts. Try to
group them by using Rank Order Clustering Algorithm.
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Table 1
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 Binary weight
29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Components
Decimal
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 equivalent

M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1007
M2 1 1 1 1 1 451
M3 1 1 1 1 568
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1 455
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1020

Table 2
82
 Binary weight

29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Components

Binary Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
weight
24 M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
23 M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
22 M3 1 1 1 1
21 M4 1 1 1 1 1 1
20 M2 1 1 1 1 1
Decimal
equivalent 28 27 27 27 28 20 28 26 11 11
Table 3 83
 Binary weight

29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Components
Binary Machines 1 5 7 2 3 4 8 6 9 10 Decimal
weight equivalent

24 M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1020
23 M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1019
22 M3 1 1 1 1 900
21 M4 1 1 1 1 1 1 123
20 M2 1 1 1 1 1 115
Decimal
equivalent
28 28 28 27 27 27 26 20 11 11

Table 4
84
 Similarity Coefficient-Based
Approaches

In similarity coefficient methods, the

basis is to define a measure of similarity
between machines, tools, design features,
and so forth and then use it to form part
families and machine groups.

85
Single-Linkage Cluster Analysis
(SLCA):

It is a hierarchical machine grouping

method known as single-linkage cluster
analysis using similarity coefficients
between machines.

The procedure is to construct a tree

called a dendrogram.
86
 The similarity coefficient between two machines is defined as the
ratio of the number of parts visiting both machines and the number
of parts visiting one of the two machines:

X
N

ijk

Sij = k=1

(Y
N

ik + Z jk - Xijk )
k 1

where: Xijk = operation on part k performed both on machine i and j,

Yik = operation on part k performed on machine i,
Zjk = operation on part k performed on machine j.

87
 SLCA ALGORITHMS
It helps in constructing dendrograms.

A dendrogram is a pictorial
representation of bonds of similarity
between machines as measured by the
similarity coefficients.

88
 The steps of algorithm are as follows:

Step 1: Compute similarity coefficients for all

possible pairs of machines,
Step 2: Select the two most similar machines to
form the first machine cell,
Step 3: Lower the similarity level (threshold) and
form new machine cells by including all the
machines with similarity coefficients not less
than the threshold value,
Step 4: Continue step 3 until all machines are
grouped into a single cell.
89
EXAMPLE:
Consider the matrix of 5 machines and 10 components
given below.
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Develop a denrogram and discuss the resulting cell structures.

90
Step 1: Determine similarity coefficients between all pairs of
machines.

SC12 = 5 = 0.556
9 + 5- 5

Similarity coefficients of machine pairs

Machine M1 M1 M1 M1 M2 M2 M2 M3 M3 M4
pairs M2 M3 M4 M5 M3 M4 M5 M4 M5 M5

SC 0.55 0.30 0.67 0.70 0.00 0.83 0.30 0.00 0.50 0.40

91
Step 2: Select machines M2 and M4, having
the highest similarity coefficients of
0.83 to form the first cell.

Step 3: The next lower coefficient of

similarity is between machines M1 and
M5. Use these machines to form the
second cell.

92
Step 4: The next lower coefficient of similarity is now 0.67
between machines M1 and M4. At this threshold value
machines M1, M2, M4, and M5 will form one machine
group. The other possible groups will be evaluated by the
same way.

M4 M2 M5 M1 M3
0.83
0.70
0.67
0.50

0.00
Dendrogram
93
EXCEPTIONAL PARTS & BOTTLNECK
MACHINES:
One of the important goal in cell design is to
create mutually independent machine cells.
However, it may not always be economical or
practical to achieve this goal.

In practice, therefore, some parts need to be

processed in more than one cell. These are
known as exceptional parts and the machines
processing them are known as bottleneck
machines.

94
 The problem of exceptional elements can
possibly be eliminated by:

• Generating alternative process plans

• Duplication of machines
• Subcontracting these operations

95
EVALUATION OF CELL DESIGN:

In design of cells, there will be more than

one alternative solution. The objective is to
find the best alternative.

96
Assume we have the following alternative
cell configuration:

Similarity Number of cells Cell configuration

coefficient formed
1.00 5 (M1), (M2), (M3), (M4), (M5)
0.83 4 (M2, M4), (M5), (M1), (M3)
0.70 3 (M2, M4), (M1, M5), (M3)
0.67 2 (M1, M2, M4, M5), (M3)
0.50 1 (M1, M2, M3, M4, M5)

97
The criteria is to minimize the distance that
the parts should travel during the
processes; in other words, to minimize the
material handling costs of intercell
(between cells) and intracell (within cell)
movements of the parts.

98
 The following factors affect the cost of
intercell and intracell movements of parts.

1. The layout of machines in a group

2. The layout of machine groups
3. The sequences of parts through machines
and machine groups

The total distances moved by a component

visiting a number of machines in a cell has
to be determined.
99
Assumptions:

1. In the absence of the real data on the

sequences in which the components visit
the machines, it is assumed that the
machines are laid out in a random
manner.
2. There is one unit distance between each
machine in a group of N machines.
3. A part has to visit two machines in a
group of N machines.
100
Expected distance for a straight-line layout: N +1
3
Expected distance for a rectangle M+L
layout of M rows of L machines: 2

2 N
Expected distance for a square layout:
3

d
The total distance moved in jth cell m
for the ith configuration: ij k ij
j
where:
dij = expected distance moved between two machines
for ith configuration in jth cell
kij = number of moves between two machines by all the
parts for ith configuration in jth cell 101
The total cost of intercellular and intracellular movements
(TCi) for the ith configuration:

d k
m
TCi = C1N i + C2 ij ij
j

where:
C1 = cost of an intercell movement
C2 = cost per unit distance of an intracell movement
Ni = number of intercell movements for ith configuration

102
EXAMPLE:
Consider the following cell configuration.

Components
Machines 1 5 2 3 4 7 8 9 10 6
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1 1

103
Consider 3-cell case:

Expected movement distance,

in cell (M1, M5) =  

21  1
3

in cell (M2, M4) =  

21  1
3

in cell (M3) = 0

104
The number of moves passing through two
machines by all the parts,

in cell (M1, M5) = 7

in cell (M2, M4) = 5
in cell (M3) = 0

The total distance for all intercell moves for 3-

cell configuration:

1 x 7 + 1x 5 + 0 = 12

The number of intercell moves in 3-cell

configuration is 10.
105
Assume:
C1 = $2.00 (cost of intercell unit
movement)
C2 = $1.00 (cost of intracell unit
movement)

The total cost of intercell and intracell

movements in 3-cell configuration:

2.00 $ x 10 + 1.00 $ x 12 = 32.00 $

106
 The summary of cost calculation for all possible cell
configuration is given in the following table:
Cell Number of Total distance of Total cost of
configuration intercell intracell intercell and
moves moves intracell
moves
5-cells (M1), (M2), 22 0 2 x 22 +
(M3), (M4), 1 x 0 = 44
(M5)
4-cells (M2, M4), (M5), 18 5 2 x 18 +
(M1), (M3) 1 x 5 = 41
3-cells (M2, M4), (M1, 10 12 2 x 10 +
M5), (M3) 1 x 12 = 32
2-cells (M1, M2, M4, 4 30 2x4+
M5), (M3) 1 x 30 = 38
1-cells (M1. M2, M3, 0 44 2x0+
M4, M5) 1x 44 = 44
107
 A survey of 53 show that the use of GT and
cellular manufacturing in US industries has met
with success. The benefits reported from these
studies include:

• Reduction in throughput time by 46%

• Reduction in work-in-process inventory by 41%
• Reduction in material handling by 39%
• Reduction in setup time by 32%
• Improvement in quality by 29.6%

108