CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION &

CLASSIFICATION OF EDIBLE OIL

1
Learning Objectives

 To introduce students about edible oil available in

the world
 To know the major player in the related industry
 To expose students on processing involved edible
oil from raw until product

2
Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

 describes about edible oil industries and the

classification
 describe about oil palm plantation
 discuss about palm oil industry in Malaysia
 comprehend the milling process in extracting oil or
kernel
 discuss quality control practices in palm oil milling

3
Introduction

– Edible means fit to be eaten or safely to consume

– There are lot of edible oil such as sunflower oil, soya
bean oil, coconut oil, palm oil, rapeseed and fish oil
– Major components in edible oil: carbohydrates,
vitamin, protein, fat saturated & unsaturated or
polysaturated, cholesterol and natrium

4
What is oil and fats?

– Can be occurred in liquid (oil) and solid (fat)

– Primary composition is glycerides
– From plants and animals origin

5
Composition in edible oil

– Glycerides
– Fatty acid Most important characteristic
– Phospolipids
– Tocopherols and Tocotrienols
– Sterol & Sterol Ester
– Caratenoids
– Minor Constituent-pesticides, trace metals

6
Glycerides

– Occurs about 97 % as triglycerides-triester of glycerols

with fatty acids
– 2% as diglycerides
– 1% as monoglycerides
– Tri, di and mono consists of 1 mol of glycerols
esterified with 3mol, 2mol, or 1 mol of fatty acid

7
Glycerides…

– Triglycerides of naturally occurring oil and fats

contains at least two different fatty acid group
– Chemical, physical & biological properties of oil and
fats determined by type of fatty acid groups and
their distribution over the triglycerides molecules
– Melting point increase when long chain of fatty acid
or decrease of proportion of unsaturated fatty acid.

8
Glycerides...

– As example: milk fat (butterfat) and coconut oil

which contains a high proportion of C6-C12 fatty
acids- have lower melting point compare to fats
such as tallow or lard which consist of C16-C18.

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Glycerides...

– It is a chemical compound of one molecule of

glycerol bound to three molecules of Fatty Acid:

CH2 – OH + R1-COOH CH2 – COOR1

CH – OH + R2-COOH CH – COOR2 + 3H2O
CH2 – OH + R3-COOH CH2 – COOR3
Glycerol Fatty Acid Triglyceride Water

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Fatty Acid
– Fatty acid that form the triglycerides of naturally
occurring oil & fats with predominant even
numbered, straight chain, aliphatic monocarboxylic
acid with chain length ranging from C4 to C24
– Can be distinguished by:
– Chain length
– Number & position of double bonds
– Position of the fatty acids within the glyceride
molecule.
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Fatty Acid…

– the simplest lipids that exhibit the above properties

– carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon tail (fatty acids)
– usually contain an even number of carbons
– If double bonds are present (unsaturation), they're
usually cis.
– pKa of fatty acids' carboxyl groups about 4.5

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Fatty Acid…

 (a) Stearic acid (stearate at pH

7), a fully saturated 18-C fatty
acid (no double bonds), in its
usual extended conformation
 (b) Oleic acid (oleate at pH 7),
an 18-C fatty acid with 1 cis
double bond. Double bond
doesn't permit rotation, and
introduces "kink" (rigid bend)
in hydrocarbon tail

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Fatty Acid...

– Unsaturated fatty acids differ in number and position

of double bonds and its configuration
– Common fatty acid are know with trivial name such
as: butyric, lauric, palmitic, oleic, stearic, linoleic,
linolenic
– Crude oil contains significant amount of free fatty
acid (FFA)

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 Fatty Acid…

– Most fatty acid come from vegetable oil and consist

of palmitic, oleic and linoleic acid
– For land animal such as cow, goat, fatty acid form
from conversion of carbohydrates, proteins or fats or
originate directly from ingested fat

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Fatty Acid…

– Chemical structure

16
Phospolipids

– Mostly present as lipoproteins and lipid carbohydrate

complex
– Also known as phosphoglycerides
– Examples of rich sources of phospolipids: oilseed,
cereal germs, eggyolk and brain

17
Tocopherols & Tocotrienols

– From tocols - as natural anti oxidants

– Tocopherol, or vitamin E, is a fat-soluble vitamin in
eight forms that is an important antioxidant
– Natural vitamin E exists in eight different forms or
isomers, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols

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Tocopherols & Tocotrienols...

– All isomers have a chromanol ring, with a hydroxyl

group which can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce
free radicals and a hydrophobic side chain which
allows for penetration into biological membranes.
– There is an alpha, beta, gamma and delta form of
both the tocopherols and tocotrienols, determined
by the number of methyl groups on the chromanol
ring. Each form has its own biological activity, the
measure of potency or functional use in the body.

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Tocopherols & Tocotrienols...

– As a food additive, tocopherol is labeled with these E

numbers: E307 (α-tocopherol), E308 (γ-tocopherol),
and E309 (δ-tocopherol).
– The stability of many vegetable oils based on presence
of thes natural antioxidant.

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Tocopherols & Tocotrienols...

– The actual content of Vitamin E for rich sources is

stated in the following list:
– Wheat germ oil (215.4 mg/100 g)
– Sunflower oil (55.8 mg/100 g)
– Hazelnut (26.0 mg/100 g)
– Walnut oil (20.0 mg/100 g)
– Peanut oil (17.2 mg/100 g)

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Tocopherols & Tocotrienols…

– The actual content of Vitamin E for rich sources is

stated in the following list:
– Pollard (2.4 mg/100 g)
– Corn (2.0 mg/100 g)
– Asparagus (1.5 mg/100 g)
– Oats (1.5 mg/100 g)

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Tocopherols & Tocotrienols….

– The actual content of Vitamin E for rich sources is

stated in the following list:
– Chestnut (1.2 mg/100 g)
– Coconut (1.0 mg/100 g)
– Tomatoes (0.9 mg/100 g)
– Carrots (0.6 mg/100 g)
– Crude Palm oil 600-1000ppm

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Sterols and Sterols Ester

– Nonsaponifaible matter of oil and fats consists of

sterols present such as fatty acid esterand glycolipids
– The most improtant sterol in animal fats is
cholesterol
– β- sitosterol is predominant sterol in vegetable oil
and fats

24
Carotenoids

– Consider nonsaponifiable matter

– Normally consists of terpenes and terpene alcohol
– Carotenoids presence in oils and fats example:
tetrapenes, β-carotene, α- carotene, lycopene and
xanthophyl &etc..
– Crude palm oil contains up to 500 to 700 ppm

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26

CPD 30203 (JAN 2016)

CPD 30203 (JAN 2015) 26
 Systematic name Trivial name Shorthand Molecular wt. Melting point (°C)
designation
butanoic butyric 4:0 88.1 -7.9
pentanoic valeric 5:0
hexanoic caproic 6:0 116.1 -3.4
octanoic caprylic 8:0 144.2 16.7
nonanoic pelargonic 9:0 158.2
decanoic capric 10:0 172.3 31.6
dodecanoic lauric 12:0 200.3 44.2
tetradecanoic myristic 14:0 228.4 53.9
hexadecanoic palmitic 16:0 256.4 63.1
heptadecanoic margaric (daturic) 17:0 270.4 61.3
octadecanoic stearic 18:0 284.4 69.6
eicosanoic arachidic 20:0 412.5 75.3
docosanoic behenic 22:0 340.5 79.9
tetracosanoic lignoceric 24:0 368.6 84.2
hexacosanoic cerotic 26:0 396.7
heptacosanoic carboceric 27:0 410.7
octacosanoic montanic 28:0 424.8
triacontanoic melissic 30:0 452.9
dotriacontanoic lacceroic 32:0 481
tritriacontanoic ceromelissic (psyllic) 33:0 495

tetratriacontanoic geddic 34:0 509.1

pentatriacontanoic ceroplastic 35:0 523.1
Types of Edible Oil in the World

– Vegetables Oils and Fats

– Land Animals Fats
– Marine Animals Fats
– Synthetic Fats

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Vegetables Oils and Fats

– Classification
– Fruit Pulp / Mash fats
– such as Palm Oil , Olive and avocado, coconut
– Seed Kernel fats
– major source of oil and fats
– such as palm kernel oil,, corn oil, sunflower oil
and etc

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 Vegetables Oils and Fats...

– Palm Oil: composition

– C12:0 Lauric - 0.2%
– C14:0 Myristic - 1.1%
– C16:0 Palmitic - 44.0% saturated fatty acid
– C18:0 Stearic - 4.5%
– C18:1 Oleic - 39.2% unsaturated
– C18:2 Linoleic - 10.1% fatty acid

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 Vegetables Oils and Fats…

• Palm Oil characteristics:

Saponification value 195-205
Iodine value 44-58
Nonsaponifiable matter 0.5%
Melting point 36-40 °C
Refractive Index at 40 °C 1.453-1.456
Carotene Content 50-2000 ppm

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Vegetables Oils and Fats...
– Olive Oil :Obtained from olive fruit:

– C16:0 Palmitic - 16.0% saturated fatty acid

– C18:0 Stearic - 4.0%
– C18:1 Oleic - 64.0%
– C18:2 Linoleic - 5.0% unsaturated fatty acid
– C18:3 Linoleic-b - 5.0%

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Vegetables Oils and Fats…
– Olive Oil characteristics:

Saponification value 185-196

Iodine value 80-88
Nonsaponifiable matter < 1.4%
Melting point -3 °C
Refractive Index at 25 °C 1.466-1.468

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Vegetables Oils and Fats…

– Avocado Oil
– From Persea Gratissima L tree.:

C16:0 Palmitic - 7.0% saturated fatty acid

C18:0 Stearic - 2.5%
C16:1 Palmitoleic - 76.0% unsaturated
C18:1 Oleic - 10.0% fatty acid
C18:2 Linoleic - 5.0%
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Seed Kernel Fats

– Lauric Acid Oils

– Palmitic-Stearic acid Oil
– Palmitic Acid Oils
– Oleic-Linoleic Oils
– Leguminous Oil
– Cruceferous Oil
– Conjugated Acid Oil
– Substituted Fatty Acid Oils

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Seed Kernel Fats: Lauric Acid

– Lauric Acid Oil

– Saturated Fatty acid with chain C12 & C14 (myristic)
– Coconut Oil characteristics:

Saponification value 250-262

Iodine value 7-10
Nonsaponifiable matter 0.15-0.60 %
Melting point 20-28 °C
Refractive Index at 40 °C 1.448-1.450
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Seed Kernel Fats: Lauric Acid

– Coconut Oil composition:

C12:0 Lauric - 41.0% saturated
C14:0 Myristic - 18.0% fatty acid
C16:0 Palmitic - 9%
C18:0 Stearic - 3.0%
C18:1 Oleic - 76.0% unsaturated
C18:2 Linoleic - 10.0% fatty acid

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Seed Kernel Fats: Lauric Acid

– Palm Kernel Oil characteristics:

Saponification value 242-254

Iodine value 16-19
Nonsaponifiable matter 0.2-0.8 %
Melting point 23-30 °C
Refractive Index at 40 °C 1.449-1.452

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Seed Kernel Fats: Lauric Acid

– Palm Kernel Oil composition:

C12:0 Lauric - 45.0% saturated
C14:0 Myristic - 17.0% fatty acid
C16:0 Palmitic - 10%
C18:0 Stearic - 3.0%
C18:1 Oleic - 18.0% unsaturated
C18:2 Linoleic - 3.0% fatty acid

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Seed Kernel Fats: Lauric Acid

– Others sources of Lauric Acid:

– Babassu oil from babassu palm
– Laurel tree
– Myristica officinalis-brazil
– Cuphea-mexico

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Seed Kernel Fats: Palmitic Stearic Acid

– Cocoa (koko) butter (Thebroma cacoa) Oil characteristics:

Saponification value 190-200

Iodine value 35-40
Nonsaponifiable matter 0.2-0.5 %
Melting point 28-36 °C
Refractive Index at 40 °C 1.453-1.458

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Seed Kernel Fats: Palmitic Stearic Acid

– Cocoa (Koko) Butter Oil composition:

– C12:0 Lauric - 46.0% saturated
– C14:0 Myristic - 21.0% fatty acid
– C16:0 Palmitic - 12%
– C18:0 Stearic - 3.0%
– C18:1 Oleic - 37.0% unsaturated
– C18:2 Linoleic - 4.0% fatty acid

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Seed Kernel Fats: Palmitic Stearic Acid

– Cottonseed Oil
– Kapok & related oil
– Pumpkin seed oil
– Corn (maize) oil

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Seed Kernel Fats: Palmitic Stearic Acid

– Corn (maize) oil

Saponification value 187-196

Iodine value 109-133
Nonsaponifiable matter 1.3-2.0 %
Refractive Index at 40 °C 1.453-1.458

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 Seed Kernel Fats: Oleic-Linoleic Acid Oil

– Sunflower
– Sesame oil
– Linseed Oil
– Perilla Oil
– Hempseed oil
– Teased oil
– Safflower and Niger Seed
– Grape Seed Oil
– Poppy Seed Oil

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Seed Kernel Fats: Oleic-Linoleic Acid Oil

• Sunflower oil from sunflower seed

Saponification value 188-194

Iodine value 125-144
Nonsaponifiable matter 0.4-1.4 %
Refractive Index at 40 °C 1.466-1.468

46
 Seed Kernel Fats: Oleic-Linoleic Acid Oil

• Sunflower oil Oil composition:

– C16:0 Palmitic - 8.0% saturated

– C18:0 Stearic - 6.5% fatty acid
– C18:0 Stearic - 3.0%
– C18:1 Oleic - 34.0% unsaturated
– C18:2 Linoleic - 73.0% fatty acid

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 Seed Kernel Fats: Leguminous Oil

Soybean oil spec:

• Types:
– Soybean oil Saponification value 188-195
– Peanut Oil
– Lupine oil Iodine value 120-136
• Flake Solidification point -15 to - 8° C
Nonsaponifiable 0.5-1.5 %
matter
Refractive Index at 1.465-1.469
40 °C 48
Seed Kernel Fats: Leguminous Oil

– Soybean oil composition:

– C16:0 Palmitic - 10.0% saturated
– C18:0 Stearic - 6.0% fatty acid

– C18:1 Oleic - 25.0% unsaturated

– C18:2 Linoleic - 57.0% fatty acid
– C18:3 Linoleic-b - 11.0%

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Seed Kernel Fats: Cruciferous Oil

– Rapeseed oil
– Mustard seed oil

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Seed Kernel Fats: Conjugated Acid Oil

– Tung Oil & Related Oil

– Oiticica Oil

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Seed Kernel Fats : Substituted fatty acid oil

– Castor oil
– Chaulmoogra, Hydnocarpus and gorli oil

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Land Animal Fats

– Lard
– Beef Tallow
– Mutton Tallow
– Horse, Goose & Chicken fats

53
 Land Animals Fat

– Lard-Hog (pig)
– Composition and physical have wide variation
refer to the climate which it was raised, animal
diet
– Low in PUFA & have good an oxidative stability
– Lack of natural antioxidants such as (butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoulene
(BHT) , tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ)
54
Land Animals Fat
– Lard-Hog (pig)...
– Ordinary lard characterized by translucence and a
poor plastic range
Saponification value 193-203
Iodine value 45.0-70.0
Nonsaponifiable matter < 0.1
Melting point 31.5-33.0 °C
Refractive Index at 40 °C 1.448-1.460
Fatty Acid C14,C16,C18
C18:1,C18:2 55
 Land Animals Fat

– Tallow (cattle and sheep)

– Hard fat of ruminant (Chewing cud mammals such
as cow, ox, camel and etc)
– Contains saturated fatty acids and at least 5%
trans acids (characteristic of ruminant digestive
system)

56
Land Animals Fat

– Tallow (cattle and sheep)…

– To undergo rendering process (wet / dry) for meat
fat but before that impurities such as proteins and
free fatty acid . Cause black spot (proteins turns into
black due direct contact to steam during steam
distillation)

57
Land Animals Fat

– Tallow (cattle and sheep)

– Two processes:
– Filtration-bleaching earth added and wash with
water-
– Water washing- 10% of capacity but not
practically . Needs extra centrifuges and can’t
removed 100%

58
 Land Animals Fat
Saponification 190-202
• Tallow (cattle and value
sheep)… Iodine value 40.0-49.0
– Contain: red & Nonsaponifiable < 0.8
yellow pigment matter
– High level of Melting point 45.0-48.0 °C
saturated fatty Refractive Index 1.448-1.460
acid, Consistent at 40 °C
at rt. Fatty Acid C16,C18,
C16:1,
C18:1,C18:2
59
Marine Animal Fats

– Whale oil
– Fish Oil

60