DESIGN OF

REINFORCED
AND
PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
 WORKING STRESS METHOD ( WSM )
1. The working stress method is logically not applicable to concrete structures,
because of non-linearity in concrete stress-strain curve.

2. Due to non linear stress strain relationship modulus of elasticity also varies,
therefore constant value of modular ratio cannot be used.

3. It does not predict true margin of safety.

4. Additional load carrying capacity in plastic region is not taken into account.
5. It considers ultimate stress as the limit of safety, but safety is a function of
ultimate strain and not ultimate stress.

6. Since the structure is subjected to loads, then loads should form the failure-
criteria and not stress.

7. Factor of safety does not predict true margin of safety.

8. The effect of creep and shrinkage of concrete is totally ignored.

9. Failure load computed by this method (in majority of the cases) is less than
obtained by experimental results at collapse.

10. It is a simple and reasonably reliable method.

 LIMIT STATE METHOD ( LSM )
In the limit state method, a structure is essentially designed for safety
against collapse (i.e. for ultimate strength to resist ultimate load) and
checked for serviceability at working load.

• It considers the actual behavior of the structure during the entire loading
history upto collapse.

• It adopts the concept of fitness of the structure to serve the desired function
during the service life span and defines the limiting state of fitness as the
‘limit state’.

• It defines quantitatively the margin of safety or fitness on some scientific

mathematical – foundation, rather than on adhoc basis of experience and
judgment.

• The method is based on probabilistic principles.

 Limit state design
A structure is said to have reached its limit state, when the structure as whole
or as part becomes unfit for use.

In limit state design the structure is designed so that it will never reach any of
specified limit states during its expected life.

Types of Limit state

1. Limit state of collapse:

It is the limit state at which the structure is likely to collapse.

2. Limit state of serviceability:

It relate to performance or behavior of structure. It is subdivided into -

I) Limit state of deflection.

II) Limit state of Cracking.

III) Other Limit states. ( Vibration, Fire resistance, Durability )

 Characteristics load and Characteristics strength
Characteristics load – Load which has 95% probability of not being exceeded
during the service life is called Characteristics load.

Characteristics strength – The value of material strength below which not more
than 5% of test results are expected to fall.
i.e. characteristic strength has 95% reliability.

Actual Stress-Strain Curve :

Experiments have shown the stress-strain relation of concrete is nonlinear,

and is a function of several variables.

The main factors affecting the stress-strain relationship are given as under :

(a) Strength of concrete and ultimate strain

(b) Duration of loading, and

(c) Rate of loading

• The ultimate strain in axial compression varies from 0.001 to 0.003 depending upon
the strength of concrete.
• The ultimate strain in axial compression is taken equal to 0.002 for design.
• The ultimate strain in bending compression is found to vary from O.003 to 0.005 and
in design calculations a value of 0.0035 is adopted by I.S. Code.
• The variation of ultimate tensile strain is from 1/10 to 1/20 of ultimate compression
strain and the value of 0.0001 is taken in design. .
Modular Ratio :
Modular Ratio is the ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to
modulus of elasticity of concrete.
As the modulus of elasticity of concrete changes with time, age etc., the modular ratio
also changes accordingly. I.S. Code gives the following -
Typical Stress – Strain Curve for Mild Steel (Fe250) & HYSD bars (Fe415/500)
( Idealised )

Elastic strain Inelastic strain

Where, Partial safety Factor for Steel = 1.15

* Idealised stress-strain curve is linear up

to 0.8fy & there after nonlinear.
* Design curve is linear up to (0.8fy / 1.15)
& there after nonlinear.
 Singly reinforced Rectangular beam ( Theory )
Consider a rectangular section of a reinforced concrete with total
area of reinforcement Ast only on the tension side.
The strain diagram showing linear variation of strain across depth.

Leaver arm

Where,  cu-------- max. strain in concrete in compression.

Xu --------depth of neutral axis
 su -------strain in steel and k1, k2 & k3 are factors
From stress strain diagram,

Position of Neutral Axis :

Total compression Cu =Average compressive stress in concrete x area of concrete.
:. CU = fav (b . Xu) = k1. fck .(b . Xu)
Similarly, total tension Ts =fs . Ast
For equilibrium condition, Total Compression = Total tension.

Lever arm (Zu) : is distance between Cu and Tu

Zu = (d - k2 Xu)
Moment of resistance
From comp. side
From tension side

% of steel (pt)
Balanced section :
For balanced section  su=  sy , fs = fyd,  cu=  cu , xu = xu.max, Mur = Mur.max &
pt = pt.max
0.446

Where, k1=0.36, k2=0.42, k3= 0.446

Cu ---- Ultimate strain in concrete = 0.0035
su ---- Ultimate strain in Steel (depends on grade of steel)
0.87 fy
su  0.002 
Es
Limiting depth of Neutral axis. (Xu.max) Grade of
Steel su
Cu Su
 Fe 250 0.00308
Xu max ( d  Xu max)
Fe 415 0.00380
0.0035 Su
 Fe 500 0.00417
Xu max ( d  Xu max)

( d  Xu max) Su Therefore, put value of su for different

 
Xu max 0.0035 grades of steel, gives
 Xu max  Ku max d
Table 1 : Depth of N.A.

N.A.Factor Grade of Steel Ku.max Xu max.

Fe 250 0.53 0.53d
Fe 415 0.48 0.48d
Fe 500 0.46 0.46d
 0.446

Area of parabola = 2/3 b x h

Area of stress block

A = [ 0.446fck x (3/7 Xu) + 2/3 x 0.446 fck x (4/7 Xu) ] = 0.36 fck .Xu
Cu = A x b
Therefore, Cu = 0.36 fck b Xu ( acting at a dist. 0.42 Xu from top )
Mur max = Cu . Z Leaver arm

Mur max = 0.36 fck b Xu (d - 0.42 Xu)

 Mu max = 0.36 fck b Xu lim (d - 0.42 Xu lim) for limiting condition

For Fe 250, Xu max = 0.53 d ---- (Table 1)

 Mu max = 0.36 fck b (0.53 d) (d - 0.42x0.53d)
Mu max = 0.148 fck bd 2 ---- (for Fe 250)
 Table 2 Ultimate M.R. factor

Grade of Steel Mu max.= (Ru.max bd 2)

Fe 250 0.148 fck bd 2

Fe 415 0.138 fck bd 2
Fe 500 0.133 fck bd 2

fck
 Design - Steps of Singly Reinforced Beam
Given : fck and fy
• Trial size : b = 230 mm, trial depth D = L / 12
d = D – eff. cover
• Load calculations.
1. Self weight = (b x d) conc.
2. Live load = w
Total load = W
Design load, Wu = 1.5 W
• Effective span
Leff = c/c dist. of supports OR
whichever is small
= clear span + d
• Max BM
• Check for depth
Mu = M calculated
• Area of main steel
0.5 fck  4.6 Mu 
Ast (main) = 1  1  bd
fy  fckbd 2 

• Minimum Area of steel
Ast 0.85
 Ast (main) > Ast min, otherwise provide Ast min.
• Shear force bd fy
Design shear force Vu = Wu.Leff / 2
Nominal shear stress Vu
v 
bd
Design shear strength of concrete c depends upon % of steel

pt =
Ast  100 , from IS456, table19&20, find  c and 
c max
bd
• If  V <  c > c max Shear reinforcement not required
• If V >  c >  c max Shear reinforcement is required

Strength of shear reinforcement Vus = Vu -  c b.d

Therefore, spacing of stirrups :
087 fy  Asv  d
Sv     1.
Vus
Whichever is Minimum.
Sv = 0.75 d --------- 2.
Asv 0.4
    3.
b.sv 0.87 fy
Sv = 300 mm ------- 4.
 Example :

Since

From Slide 18
 Design of Doubly Reinforced Beam
It is used when the size of concrete beam is restricted , but has to resist a
moment greater than that of a balance section.
A doubly reinforced section may be considered as combination of two sections.
1. A singly reinforced section with Ast1 and resisting Mu1 of total moment Mu
2. And section consisting of comp. steel Asc and Ast2, resisting balance moment
Mu2 = (Mu - Mu1)
 O.36 fck

Depth of Neutral Axis

Total compression =Total tension i.e. Cu =Tu. or Cu1 + Cu2 = ( T u1 + T u2) = Tu
where, Cu1 = compression provided by concrete in Section-I.
Cu2 = compression provided by compression steel in Section2 .
Tu1 = tension provided by tension steel Ast1 in Section-I to balance Cu1.
Tu2 = tension provided by tension steel Ast2 in Section-2 to balance Cu2.
(O.36 fck b.xu – fcc Asc) + fsc Asc =0.87 fy. Ast
Deduction for holes
f sc = stress in steel in compression.
f cc = stress in concrete in compression at level of Asc =0.45 fck
(- fcc.Asc) = deduction for reduction of compression in concrete,
which is displaced by compression steel.
From Slide 13

or
Neglecting
Ultimate Moment of Resistance :
Taking moments of Cu1 and Cu2 about the centroid of tension steel.
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
where,
Mu1 = Ultimate moment of resistance offered by Sect.1, which consists of a couple,

formed by Cu1 and Tu1 at lever arm (d - 0.42 xu )

Mu2 = (M u - Mu1 ) = Ultimate moment of resistance offered by Sect.-2, which

consists of a couple, formed by Cu2,and Tu2 at lever arm ( d - dc), in which

dc is effective cover to compression steel.

From Fig. Slide 22

Neglecting
Area of tension and Compression Steel ( for balance Section )
xu =xu,max, Mu = Mu,max and Ast1 = Ast,max = Pt.max. b.d

From Slide 14

OR
Stress in Compression Steel
(fsc)

From similar triangle

For balance section

Stress / strain = E
fsc = Es x  0.87 fy
Substituting Es = 2 X 105 Nlmm2
fsc = ( 2 X 105) x 0.0035 ( 1 – dc/xu )
= 700 ( 1 – dc/ xu )
fsc < 0.87 fy :. 700 (1 - dc/ xu ) < 0.87 x 250 i.e. 217.5

(1 – dc / xu ) < 217.5 / 700

dc / xu 1 - 217.5 / 700 (= 0.69) :. dc 0.69 xu

Since Xu =Xu.limit, therefore, Assuming lowest value of xu = 0.3 d

dc (0.69 x 0.3d } = 0.21 d OR dc / d 0.21 For mild steel

Refer table1

Normally, dcId hardly ever exceeds 0.2, and fsc = 0.87 fy for mild steel

Similarly for High Grade steel => next slide

From Slide 24
From Slide 24
Example :
From Slide 25
3 nos.16mm at top
 Design of slabs
1. One Way Slab
2. Two Way Slab
1) One Way Slab : Supported continuously on two opposite sides so that the
loads are transferred across the span .
Design Steps :
1. Decide whether slab is one way or two way
i.e. Ly / Lx > 2 -------- One way slab
2. Trial Depth of Slab
Span
Required d = Where 1= Modification factor
( L / d ) ratio  1

Basic values of span to effective depth ratios

a) Basic value : L/d
Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20
Continuous 26
b) Depending on the area and the stress of tension steel, the values in (a) Or (b)

shall be modified by multiplying with the modification factor obtained as per Fig.1.

c) Depending on the area of compression steel, the value of span to depth ratio be

further modified by multiplying with the modification factor obtained as per Fig.2

d) For beams and slabs (except cantilever) with span more than 10 m, fourth

modification factor 4 is given by IS-456(2000) :

4= 10 / span.

Take L/d value from a) and fs = 290 N/mm2, 240 N/mm2 and 145 N/mm2

for steel grade Fe500, Fe415, Fe250 respectively.

Since, fs = Fy / (1.5x1.15) where fs = permissible stress in steel

Initially assume, Grade of steel % of steel

Fe 250 0.5% to 0.9%

Fe 415 0.25% to 0.45%

Fe 500 0.2% to 0.35%

 Fig.1 1

Fig.2
3. Loads : Consider 1 m width of slab.

a) Dead load, DL/m = Self wt. + Floor Finish = 25D + FF

b) Live Load, LL refer IS-875 (part 2)

Total working load = DL+LL

Total Ultimate design load = Wud = 1.5 x (DL+LL)

4. Design moments (Mu)

BM is calculated at centre of span.

(a) For Simply supported slab Mu = Wud x L2 / 8

(b) For continuous slab :

1. Coefficients given in IS code.

Mu = d wud L2 + L wuL L2 Where wud = Ult. DL and wuL = Ult. LL
 d =

L=

5. Check for concrete depth

Max. moment carrying capacity of section Mur max = Ru.max . b . d2
Check d, which shall be less than “d” provided. = 0.138 fck bd 2 for Fe415

6. Main steel
0.5 fck  4.6 Mu 
Ast main = 1  1  bd
fy  
From Slide 18
fckbd 2 
Ast min = 0.12% b.D for (Fe415 & Fe500)

Ast min = 0.15% b.D for (Fe250)

Required spacing , s = 1000 x (ast / Ast), where ast is area of one bar provided.

Maximum spacing s  3d or 300 whichever is less.

7. Check for deflection

Calculate pt%=100 x Ast / b.d

Check (pt) required < (pt) provided.

8. Distribution steel

Required Ast = 0.12% b.D for Fe 415 and Fe 500

= 0.15% b.D for Fe 250

Maximum spacing s  5d or 450 whichever is less.

9. Check for shear : Max. S.F.
Vu max = Wud . L/2 --------- for simply supported slab
or Vu max = d Wud.L and L Wud . L --------- for continuous slab

d

L

Obtain design shear stress c , from pt. and Ast from table 19 of IS-456.

Shear resistance of slab Vuc = k . c b.d (where k as per table, next slide)

If Vuc > Vumax ---- (safe) ; else increase thickness of slab.

10. Check on development length

(a) For positive moment, bottom steel at support

Ld < 1.3 M1 / Vu.max+ Lo Where, M1 = M.R. at support = 50% of Mu.max

M1 = Mu.max / 2

Hook length

L0 = (x2+ha) and

x2 = (bs / 2) - x1 - (r+)

X1 = end cover, bs= breadth of support, r =2  for Fe250 and r = 4 for Fe415

Hook length ha = 16 x  for 1800 bend and ha = 8 x  for 900 bend.

Ld < 1.3 M1 / Vu.max + L0

Also Ld = (0.87fy / 4 bd )  ,  bd =design bond strength

Note : 1. For deformed bars these values will be increased by 60% in case of ultimate
loads.
2. For bars in compression the above value shall be increased by 25% for all load
levels.
 Two way slabs
1. Ly / Lx < = 2 Then Two way slab

2. Assume % of steel & calculate trial depth.

3. Loads

i) DL ii) LL

Total working load W = DL +LL

Ultimate load Wu = 1.5 W

4. Design moments

According to boundary conditions, find B.M. Coefficients “” (Table 26, IS-456)

Mux = x wu Lx2

Muy = y wu Lx2
5. Check for depth
For grade of conc. and steel find Ru.max, check d reqd < d provided.

6. Area of steel
0.5 fck  4.6 Mu 
1  1  bd
fy  
a) Area of steel along short span Ast x=
fckbd 2 

b) Area of steel along long span Ast y, same as above, only d’ = d – dia. of one bar.

7. Check for deflection

For “Astx” provided along shorter span
% of steel required < % of steel assumed in step 2
 8. Torsional steel : Provide

9.

10.
 N.A. factor

Pt = 100 x Ast / b.d

 d
Table
Span
Required d = ( L / d ) ratio  1 Where 1= Modification factor =1.4
 Ld = (0.87fy / 4  bd ) 
design bond strength

60% increase for CTD

Hence okay.
Design of two way Slab
By interpolation