Common Cadmium Exposure

Tatum, Samuel
CIVL 3230: Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Figure 2 shows that cadmium

Introduction pollution amounts over the last
1.6

1.4 Health Risk

decade have decreased in the U.S. 1.2
These trends have also been seen in

CADMIUM (MILLION LBS)

Cadmium (Cd) is a non-essential metal found in the earth’s crust. Its presence is observed in most soils 1
most European countries (11). Both 0.25 Risk Conclusions
in low concentrations. Typically cadmium is found in association with lead, copper and zinc ores (13). 0.8
the overall disposal and amount of • Evidence: no apparent relation
In the early 1900’s a mining operation in Japan released its cadmium waste into a river used for rice cadmium recycles have decreased. 0.6
farming. The ingestion of cadmium resulted in a man-made illness known as Itai-itai disease, which between low Cd ingestion for
This may be due to the trend to 0.4 0.2
extended time and health risks (4)
involves bone and joint problems and kidney failure. Since then cadmium has been recognized as a move away from industrial 0.2
• Safe dietary Cd intake is around
hazardous substance and its use and disposal is restricted and monitored (5). cadmium usage and proper waste 0 65 μg per kg per day (11)

Cd (mg/kg)
0.15
management practices (10). 2002 2007
YEAR
2012 2017
• Average dietary is around 10 μg
Figure 1. Applications of Cadmium Disposal and Release Total
per kg per day (11)
1% Figure 2. Cadmium generated wastes by industries in the U. S. (10) 0.1 • Regulation maximum Cd in
7% fertilizers and sludge is adequate
<1%
for the highest risk pathways (10)
0.05
8% • Even untreated sludge does not
Batteries
Occurrence in the Environment provide crops with alarming
0
amounts of Cd (8)
Pigments Gourd Cauliflower Eggplant Okra Onion Spinach
83%
Currently, cadmium still poses a In Figures 3 and 4 locations with high concentrations of Cadmium are labeled; however, cadmium
Coatings Figure 7. Concentrations of Cd in crops fertilized with raw sludge (8)
health risk because of its high toxicity pollution is not limited to the locations depicted. Nearly 100% cadmium pollution in the sites
Plastics
and sites with high concentrations depicted involve pollution of soils (10).
Alloys, Devices, and Others are well documented (10,13).
However, low concentration
exposure is more common but less
Conclusion
understood (11). Therefore, common
cadmium exposure was considered in
Cadmium pollution may occur under many different circumstances. Based on current technology
order to understand risks in food
three strategies were considered. In highly contaminated areas soil removal is most commonly
with Cd concentration.
used. The Japanese government effectively remediated the Itai-itai affected areas (1). For low
exposure phytoremediation is the preferred option. Indigenous plants may be grown that have
Human Health high Cd intake. At maturity the entire plant or foliage may be moved to a disposal site (7). Also, if
cadmium is in high concentrations in areas too large for soil removal, crops may be selectively
grown or genetically modified to resist cadmium uptake (11).
Exposure to low concentrations of cadmium is common in air, food, or water (10). Cadmium inhalation
is the most concerning means of exposure, especially in high concentrations (such as in industrial
Figure 8. Solutions to cadmium pollution
smelting), but may be avoided by proper safety practices. Cadmium is also inhaled in tobacco smoke.
As much as 50% of the cadmium in tobacco smoke may be absorbed by the lungs. Cadmium-blood
Selection/Genetic
levels in the average person are reported to be at 0.38 µg/L, whereas smokers was 1.58 µg/L. As much Phytoremediation Soil Removal
Modification
as 3 µg/day may be absorbed per pack of cigarettes (2). Cancer has been linked to respiratory Figure 3. Significant sites of cadmium pollution in the U. S. (13) Figure 4. Significant sites in Alabama (10)
exposure of cadmium in animal clinical trials with high confidence (3).
• Crop rotation with leaf • Itai-itai related Cd was • Crops may be selected
In food and water, only 1-10% of the cadmium may be absorbed into the body (2). Consumption of removal remediated by the for low Cd content
food and drink with cadmium has not been linked to cancer but is related to bone, kidney, and liver
complications (1). The highest concentration of cadmium exposure for the average person occurs in
Modelling Pollutant in the Environment • Brassica junce
• Sunflowers
Japanese government by
soil removal
• Genetic modification of
crops in areas where Cd
food consumption. Clinical trials have not extensively tested ingestion of contaminated food and • Willows • Successfully removed pollution is prevalent
drink; however, Itai-itai disease and other exposure scenarios provide evidence regarding the severity It was seen in Figure 5 using phase • Cereal grains pollution
1.2
cadmium toxicity (1). partitioning software that the highest
concentration of cadmium exist in Concentration (μg/m3) 1

Table 1. EPA reference dose for human intake

Exposure Type Reference Dose Duration •

Exposure Reduction
Do not smoke
sediment and soil (6). Cadmium is relatively
unreactive and stays within the soil for long
0.8 References
Drinking Water 0.0005 mg/L/day 70 years • Apply proper occupational safety practices periods of time. In soils cadmium is readily 0.6

Food 0.001 mg/kg/day 70 years

• Do not eat food from posted hazardous absorbed into vegetation. However, its 0.4 1. Aoshima, Keiko. “Itai-Itai Disease: Cadmium-Induced Renal Tubular Osteomalacia.” Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi (Japanese Journal
Workplace Air 5 µg/m3 8 hours per day sites transfer into plants is affected by many of Hygiene), vol. 67, no. 4, 2012, pp. 455–463., doi:10.1265/jjh.67.455.
• Properly dispose of batteries variables (11). 0.2 2. “Environmental Health and Medicine Education.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=6&po=5.
0 3. “Cadmium.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris2/chemicalLanding.cfm?substance_nmbr=141.
Air Water Soil Sediment 4. Chiang, Po-Huang, et al. “A GIS-Aided Assessment of the Health Hazards of Cadmium in Farm Soils in Central
Factors Affecting Cd Soil-Plant Transfer Taiwan.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 8, no. 9, 2011, pp. 3759–3763.,
Sources of Pollution •
•
pH
Soil organic matter
Figure 5. Concentration of cadmium in different phases (6) doi:10.3390/ijerph8093759.
5. Järup, Lars, and Agneta Ãkesson. “Current Status of Cadmium as an Environmental Health Problem.” Toxicology and Applied
Humans may ingest cadmium at different Pharmacology, vol. 238, no. 3, 2009, pp. 201–208., doi:10.1016/j.taap.2009.04.020.
• Salinity 6. “Level 1: Fugacity-Based Environmental Equilibrium Partitioning Model.” Trent University, Aug. 2011,
concentrations depending upon the exposure
According to the EPA Toxic Release Inventory there are 32 cadmium releasing facilities. Since 2003 the • Temperature www.trentu.ca/academic/aminss/envmodel/.
pathway to which they are introduced. In Figure 6 7. Kathal, Rekha, et al. “Phytoremediation of Cadmium from Polluted Soil.” Journal of Bioremediation & Biodegradation, vol. 07,
average release of cadmium has decreased. Most of the cadmium related industry involves toxic • Plant species no. 06, 2016, doi:10.4172/2155-6199.1000376.
the exposure pathway with the highest theoretical
waste management followed by the chemical industry, primary metals, and electronics. 8. Qadir, M., et al. “Cadmium Concentration in Vegetables Grown on Urban Soils Irrigated with Untreated Municipal
concentration is considered (9). Sewage.” Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 2, no. 1, 2000, pp. 13–19., doi:10.1023/a:1010061711331.
Table 2. Cadmium waste management and release in 2016 (10) 9. “Regulations Governing Agricultural Use of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge.“ Committee on the use of treated municipal
Sources Figure 6. Maximum concentration of Cd pathway wastewater effluents and sludge in the production of crops fro human consumption. 1996, pp. 120-154. National Academy
Source Type Cadmium (103 lbs) Press, Washington D.C.
• Mining and refining 10. “Releases of Chemicals in the 2016 TRI National Analysis.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 25 Jan. 2018,
Total Production-Related Waste Managed 688.6
Total Releases 626.7 • Phosphate fertilizers and sludge www.epa.gov/trinationalanalysis/releases-chemicals-2016-tri-national-analysis.
Cd adsorption in Human
Total On-site 455.3 • Fossil fuel combustion soil
Transfer to plants Grazing animal
consumption
11. Roberts, Terry L. “Cadmium and Phosphorous Fertilizers: The Issues and the Science.” Procedia Engineering, vol. 83, 2014, pp.
52–59., doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2014.09.012
Air 0.117 • Mishandled Cd batteries 12. Satarug, Soisungwan, et al. “A Global Perspective on Cadmium Pollution and Toxicity in Non-Occupationally Exposed
Water 0.093 Population.” Toxicology Letters, vol. 137, no. 1-2, 2003, pp. 65–83., doi:10.1016/s0378-4274(02)00381-8.
Land 455.1 13. “Toxic Substances Portal.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3 Mar.
Total Off-site 171.4 2011, www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/toxsubstance.asp?toxid=15.