REQUIREMENTS OF POWER

SYSTEM
 It must supply energy practically everywhere the customer demands.
 The load demands vary with time. The system must able to supply this
ever changing demand.
 The delivered energy must meet certain minimum requirements in
regard to quality. The following factors determine the quality:
a) The system frequency must be kept around 50Hz with
a variation of +0.05Hz to -0.05Hz.
b) The magnitude of the bus voltages are maintained within
prescribed limit around the normal value. Generally the
voltage variation should be limited to +5 to -5%.
 The energy must be available with high reliability.
 The energy must be delivered without overloading any element in the
power system.
 The energy must be delivered at minimum cost.

1
REAL POWER (P): The real power, P is
defined as the average value of P and
therefore, physically, means the useful
power being transmitted. Its magnitude
depends very strongly on the power
factor cosΦ.
REACTIVE POWER (Q):The reactive
power, Q is by definition equal to the
peak value of that power component
that travels back & forth on the line,
resulting in zero average, and therefore
capable of no useful work.
2
 TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD PHASOR PHASE POWER ABSORBED BY THE LOAD
ANGLE P Q
I
V R I V Ф = 0° P>0 Q=0

I V
V L Ф Ф = +90° P=0 Q>0
I
I I
C P=0
V Ф = - 90° Q<0
Ф V

I R
V V
L Φ 0°<Φ<+90° P>0 Q>0
I

V R L

3
 TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD PHASOR PHASE POWER ABSORBED BY THE LOAD
ANGLE P Q

V R
C I
Φ V -90°<Φ<0° P>0 Q<0
C
V R

Tuned to
Resonance
IL = Ic
I
V L PL = Pc
C
Energy travels -90°<=Φ<=+90° P=0 Q=0
Ic IL
Back & forth
Between C&L

4
 TYPE OF LOADS
• Inductive load absorbs positive Q. i.e., an
inductor consumes
reactive power.
• Capacitive load absorbs negative Q. i.e., a
capacitor generates reactive power.
• Sign change in Q simply means a 180° phase shift.
• Resistive load consumes real power.
• Inductive load consumes positive reactive power
• Capacitive load consumes negative reactive power.
• Combination of R & L load consumes real &
positive reactive power.
• Combination of R & C load consumes real &
negative reactive power.
• Reactive power is bi-directional power. It travels from
source to load as well as load to source.
5
 CAPABILITY DIAGRAM OF A 110 MW ALTERNATOR

• I) COLLECT THE INFORMATIONS FROM T.G. NAME PLATE / MANUAL:

1. Terminal Voltage : 11,000 V
2. Rated MVA : 137.5
3. Rated p.f. (cos Ф) : 0.8 Lagging
4. Rated Armature Current : 7220 A
5. Rated Field Current : 1500 A
6. Short Circuit Ratio : 0.5
• II) CALCULATED VALUES:
1. MW = MVA X p.f. = 137.5 X 0.8 = 110 MW
2. MVAR = MVA X SCR = 137.5 X 0.5 = 68.75 MVAR (Max. permissible zero
p.f. leading MVAR)
3. Ф = cos-1(0.8) = 36.87°
4. To ensure operational safety, there should be a margin of at least 12.5 %
(given by the manufacturer) of the power rating of the generator
between
the working point & the theoretical stability (load angle ‘δ’) limit line. The
operational limit of a generator rated at 0.8 p.f. lagging can be tabulated
below:
p.u. MW 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
p.u. MW + Margin 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

6
 CAPABILITY DIAGRAM OF A 110 MW ALTERNATOR
REAL POWER
p.u. MW

Unity p.f.
Leading p.f. Lagging p.f.
VAR IMPORT VAR EXPORT

OE : No-load Field Current

OD : Field Current required for Armature Reaction
FGDHF : Capability Diagram of the 110 MW Alternator

δ=90° B
1.0
P.F.= 0.8 LAGGING
0.9 0.9

G TURBINE LIMIT LINE D

0.8 0.8

3 °)
(δ=6
THEORITICAL STABILITY LIMIT LINE

0.7 0.7

GIN

ST
T
EN

AT
MAR

RR
0.6

OR
0.6

CU
T
EN

CU
RR

RE
12 .5

R
CU

TU
0.5 0.5

RE
R OTO
LD

MA

NT
ITH

FIE

AR
R)

LIM
IT W

R C
0.4 R (O

R)
0.4

IT
(O
TO

UR
L IM

RO

OR

REN
L
TA 0.3

AT
ITY

0.3
TO

ST
.87 °

T
BIL

LIMIT
TA
STA

0.2 0.2
TO
Ф=3 6
AL
CT IC

0.1 0.1
PR A

A E F H C
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
REACTIVE POWER SCR MVA X SCR REACTIVE POWER
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE
p.u. MVAR (leading) MVAR IN ZERO p.f. LEADING.
p.u. MVAR (lagging)

7
 CAPABILITY DIAGRAM OF A 110 MW ALTERNATOR
REAL POWER
p.u. MW

Unity p.f.
Leading p.f. Lagging p.f.
VAR IMPORT VAR EXPORT

OE : No-load Field Current

OD : Field Current required for Armature Reaction
FGDHF : Capability Diagram of the 110 MW Alternator

δ=90° B
1.0
P.F.= 0.8 LAGGING
0.9 0.9

G TURBINE LIMIT LINE D

0.8 0.8

3° )
(δ=6
THEORITICAL STABILITY LIMIT LINE

0.7 0.7

R GIN

ST
NT

AT
E
RR

OR
0.6

MA
0.6

CU
T
EN

CU
2.5 %
RR

RE

RR
CU

TU
0.5 0.5

ROT
H 1
D

EN
MA
EL
FI

T
WIT

AR

OR
R)

L IM
0.4 R (O

R)
0.4
IMIT

CUR

IT
(O
TO
RO

OR
Y L

REN T
L

AT
0.3 TA 0.3
TO
BIL IT

ST
7°
L

LIMIT
TA
.8
STA

0.2 0.2
TO
Ф= 36
AL
CTIC

0.1 0.1
PRA

0.5
0.4

0.6
0.2

0.3

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0
A F H C
0.1

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
REACTIVE POWER SCR MVA X SCR REACTIVE POWER
p.u. MVAR (leading) MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE p.u. MVAR (lagging)
MVAR IN ZERO p.f. LEADING.

8
 III) COMPARISON

 Actual MW=50 (i.e. 50/137.5=0.364p.u.) E.T.P.S. *** UNIT-5

 Actual MVAR=6 (i.e. 6/137.5=0.044p.u.)
DATE: 09.08.2004
TIME: 11:00 Hrs.
 Arm. Current = 0.36p.u. X 7220A=2599A
 MW = 50
 Field Current=0.475p.u. X 1500A=712.5A
 MVAR = 6
 p.f.=cos(6.5°)=0.994 lag
 Armature Current = 2600A
 Load Angle ‘δ’=33.4°
 Field Current = 710A
 V=(MVA X 10 )/(√3 X 6
Iarm.)
 p.f.= 0.98 lag
 =(√(MW +MVAR ) X 10 )/(√3 X
2 2 6
Iarm.)
 δ = -- (No measurement)
 =(√(50 +6 ) X 10 )/(√3 X 2599) = 11.12KV
2 2 6

 V = 11.2 KV

9
 CAPABILITY CURVE
A. Rotor current limit
 Class of insulation (to take care of rotor insulation)
B. Stator current limit
 Class of insulation for stator.
C. MW load limit
 Turbine limit (steam power generation capability)
 Turbine is designed for MW load only .
D. Minimum load angle limit
 Leading p.f. operation
 Stability limit of generation
E. Stator end heating limit
 Stressing stator winding & heating of stator
 10 to 20 MVAR (leading p.f.) is safe
 Rotor is relieved from stress
 Stator end winding heated due to capacitive effect
 Remove capacitor banks in load centres
 In NCTPS 210 MW unit, running the generator at -64 MVAR
load for ½ an hour. Not able to reduce the load.
10
USEFULNESS OF CAPABILITY DIAGRAM FOR
EXCITATION CONTROL

The information given by the capability diagram

regarding full load rotor current (excitation),
maximum rotor angle during steady state leading
p.f. zone operation (<75°) etc., are essential for
proper setting of the various limiters in the
excitation control system.
Capability diagram give the basic information
regarding the limiting zones of the operation so
that limiters can be set / commissioned suitably
for safe operation of the units.
11
 FREQUENCY IS RELATED TO REAL POWER ( P – f )

 SMALL DROP IN SYSTEM LOAD.

 VALVE SETTINGS ARE IGNORANT OF THE LOAD CHANGE.

 INPUT TORQUE TO EACH MACHINE REMAINS UNALTERED.

 DECREASE IN CURRENT SUPPLIED BY EACH ALTERNATOR.

 DECREASE IN ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TORQUE BY EACH ALTERNATOR.

 EACH ALTERNATOR EXPERIENCES SURPLES ACCELERATING TORQUE.

 SLIGHT INCREASE IN SPEED AND FREQUENCY.

12
EFFECT ON OTHER LOADS:
 AT HIGHER FREQUENCY, THE REMAINING LOAD ROTATES AT
HIGHER SPEED AND TAKES MORE CURRENT.
 HENCE THE LOAD DEMAND INCREASES.
 POWER GENERATION AT HIGHER FREQUENCY EQUALS THE LOAD
DEMAND POWER.
 TO DECREASE THE FREQUENCY, THE VALVE MUST BE CLOSED
SLIGHTLY.
EXAMPLE: PUMP SET (INDUCTION MOTOR)
At high frequency, the speed of IM increases.
Ns = 120f / P Nr = Ns ( 1 - s )
The current taken by the IM will be more. Hence the demand on the system
increases.

ADJUSTING CONTROLS CONTROLS

INPUT VALVES FREQUENCY REAL POWER

13
 VOLTAGE IS RELATED TO REACTIVE POWER ( Q – V )
G1

1 V1 V2 2
I jX
P jQ

1. Bus Voltage V1 is kept at constant magnitude.

2. Transmission line has reactance only i.e. jX.
3. Power flow is P Q.

Take V1 as reference.
V2=V1-jXI -----------------------------------(1)
V1 * I = P jQ
I = (P-jQ) / V1 ------------------------------(2)
Substitute (2) in (1)
V2 = V1 – jX [(P/V1) – j(Q/V1)]
V2 = [V1 – (X/V1)Q] – j(X/V1)P] 14
 VECTOR DIAGRAMS:
V2 = V1- X Q - j X P
V1 V1

BOTH DROPS EQUAL DOUBLE P DOUBLE Q

V1 V1 V1
X Q X 2X Q
V1 Q V1
V1
X P XP
V2 V1
V2 V1

2X P
V2 V1

DOUBLE “P ”: VOLTAGE ANGLE WILL CHANGE. NO CHANGE IN MAGNITUDE.

DOUBLE “Q ”: VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE IS VERY MUCH RELATED TO REACTIVE

POWER.
MORE “Q ” FLOW WILL AFFECT THE VOLTAGE
EXCITATION MORE LAGGING MVAR GEN. VOLTAGE

EXCITATION LESS LAGGING MVAR GEN. VOLTAGE15

REACTIVE POWER INJECTION AT LOAD SIDE BY USING SHUNT
CAPACITORS, IMPROVES THE VOLTAGE.

UNDER LIGHT LOAD CONDITIONS, RECEIVING END VOLTAGE >

SENDING END VOLTAGE (FERRANTI EFFECT) DUE TO CAPACITIVE
LOAD. CONNECT SHUNT REACTORS TO CONTROL VOLTAGE.

PEAK LOAD CONNECT TO CONTROL

CONDITION CAPACITORS VOLTAGE

LIGHT LOAD CONNECT

CONDITION REACTORS

SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER IS USED TO ABSORB or TO DELIVER

THE REACTIVE POWER.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR UNDER NO-LOAD CONDITION IS

SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER.

16
 POWER DIAGRAM (CAPABILITY DIAGRAM):

• ASSUMPTION: I.R. drop is negligible. CASE-I:

In Δ ABC, BC=E Sinδ
B In Δ BCD, BC=IXd CosФ
E E Sinδ = IXd CosФ
Multiply both sides by V MW

d
δ Φ

IX
A Xd
Φ = VI CosФ
EV Sinδ V = REAL
D C
Xd I POWERMVAR
At δ=90°, We get the maximum power i.e. the theoritical stability line.
• CASE-I I: In Δ ABC, CD=AC – AD; In Δ BCD, CD=IXd SinФ
In Δ ABC, AC=E Cosδ & AD = V
IXd SinФ = E Cosδ - V ; Multiply both sides by V , We get
Xd
EV Cos δ – V2 = VI Sin Ф = REACTIVE POWER
Xd Xd

17
 SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO ( SCR ):
SCR = FIELD CURRENT REQUIRED TO PRODUCE RATED VOLTAGE ON O.C.
FIELD CURRENT REQUIRED TO CIRCULATE RATED CURRENT ON S.C.
S.C.C.
O.C.C.
PER UNIT CURRENT
PER UNIT VOLTAGE

a b
1.0
C
E
AD AE DE
c AB AC BC
A D B

o Fo Fc
SCR = o Fo c Fo c Fo 1 FIELD CURRENT
1 1
o Fs b Fs a Fo a Fo / c Fo Per unit voltage on open circuit Xd
Corresponding per unit current on short circuit

= RECIPROCAL OF SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE

18
 TYPICAL S.C.R. VALUES:
 For 500 MW T.G., SCR= 0.48
 For 210 MW T.G., SCR= 0.49
 For 110 MW T.G., SCR= 0.50
 For 60 MW T.G., SCR= 0.59
 The SCR value may have to be raised to 1.0 to 1.5, if the loading is likely to be
capacitive i.e. leading MVAR supply.
 For modern Turbo-alternator, the SCR is normally between 0.48 to 0.7
EFFECT OF S.C.R. ON MACHINE PERFORMANCE:
 Higher value of SCR has higher stability limit.
 Better voltage regulation for high SCR.
 High value of SCR has a long air gap which means that the mmf required by
field is large. Hence machine with higher SCR is costlier to build.

TRANSPORTATION
SCR AIR GAP WEIGHT SIZE
PROBLEM

Present trend is to build low value of SCR since fast acting excitation
system available.
19
GENERATOR – IMPORTANT TIPS
• T.G. CAPACITY IN M.W.:
50
60
62.5
100
110
120
200
210 – Weight: 250 tonnes
235
250
500
800 future
1000 future

20
GENERATOR – IMPORTANT TIPS
• T.G. TERMINAL VOLTAGE IN KV :
10.5
11 – ETPS 60 MW, 110 MW
13.8
15 – Neyveli-Stage I
15.75 – BHEL 210 MW
16 – Nuclear 235 MW
18.4 – NTPC 210 MW
21 – 500 MW
22 - 500 MW
33 (or) 34 – Future (800 MW/1000 MW)
requires 800 KV line (year 2010)
21
GENERATOR – IMPORTANT TIPS
 Higher capacity Hydro machine in India : 250 MW, KOINA (Maharastra),
Air cooled.

 Higher capacity T.G. in India : 500 MW.

 Higher capacity T.G. :

Advantage : Reduction of cost of Generation.
Limitations : (i) Transportation problem
(bigger size)
(ii) Do not have adequate
transmission lines.

 Higher capacity G.T. in India : 315 MVA, 3 phase, single unit,

400 KV.

 Maximum voltage : 400 KV AC.

 National Grid : 800 or 765 KV line – year 2010.

 Regional Grid : 400 KV line.

 World highest : FRANCE, 1500 MW T.G., Nuclear ,

1600 MVA, 1200 KV.

22
GENERATOR – IMPORTANT TIPS

SPECIFICATION FOR ROTATING MACHINES:

IEC 34 Part – I, II, III (International Electro-Technical

commission)
IS 5422

 2*105 hours guaranteed operating time (23 years)

8760 hrs/year.
 104 start/stop times.
 Total life time : 25 years.
 Capital O/H : Once in 4 to 5 years (25 days).
 Annual O/H : < 10 days.

23