RESEARCH

UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION

Research :
Definition:
Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a
problem
- Burns, 1994
Research is the process of looking for a specific answer to a
specific question in an organized, objective reliable way
- Payton, 1979
Research is a scientific method which is all about finding or
searching systematically for solutions to problems.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH

1. Systematic and logical

Research involves carrying out various tasks to
answer the questions in a logical and systematic
manner. It makes research more meaningful in
the context of decision making.
2. Critical Scrutiny
The various procedures, methods and
techniques used in research are critically
scrutinized before hand to prevent untoward
happenings during the process of research
3. Answer Research Questions

Research is directed towards identifying various solutions to

a problem or answers to research questions.

4. Expands body of knowledge

The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine and

expand body of knowledge. It predicts future occurrences
which are useful in decision making.
5. Rigorous Analysis

Research activities are characterized by carefully designed

procedures that are relevant, appropriate and justified by
applying rigorous analysis

6. Empirical evidence

Research is always based on observable experience or

empirical evidence, that is, the conclusions drawn are based
upon evidence gathered from real life experiences or
observations.
7. Require expertise
Researcher should be skilled to carry out the project, search
the relevant literature to understand what is already known
about a phenomena in and identify newer ways to
understand and analyze information collected.
8. Valid and verifiable
Conclusions drawn from the research must be valid and
testable. The procedural design should be planned carefully
to permit objectivity as far as possible so that it is verifiable
by the researcher himself or by others later. Thereby, it
builds sound basis for decision.
TERMINOLOGY
1. Abstract: A clear, concise summary of a study that
communicates the essential information about the study.

2. Data: Units of information or any statistics, facts, figures,

general material, evidence or knowledge collected during the
course of the study.

3. Variables: Characteristics that can have more than one value,

such as height, weight.

4. Concept: A word picture or mental idea of a phenomena.

5. Assumption: Basic principle that is accepted as being true on

the basis of logic or reason, without proof or verification

6. Hypothesis: A statement of the predicted relationship between

two or more variables in a research study
7. Population: The entire set of individuals or objects having some common
characteristics selected for a research study.
8. Sample: A part or subset of population selected to participate in research
study.
9. Sampling: The process of selecting sample from the target population to
represent the entire population.
10. Reliability: The degree of consistency or accuracy with which an
instrument measures the attribute it is designed to measure.
11. Validity: The degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to
measure.
12. Pilot study: Study carried out at the end of the planning phase of research
in order to explore and test the research elements to make relevant
modifications in research tools and methodology.
9. Confidentiality
There should be adequate measure to protect the integrity of
information gathered from the subjects. Confidentiality and
honesty should be maintained in the light of ethics. Research
activities should be carefully documented and repeated with
scholarly caution and restraints.

10. Flexibility
Researchers use flexible approaches to get closer to truth or the
essence of the of the phenomena.
NURSING RESEARCH

Definition:

Nursing research is a scientific practices that

validates and refines existing knowledge and
generates new knowledge that directly influences
nursing practice.

Nursing research is a systematic approach to

examine phenomena important to nursing and
nurses.
 NEED FOR NURSING RESEARCH

Nursing is a profession which is accountable for providing

quality care to client and families. Quality of nursing care

can be improved by providing care based on scientific

knowledge. Scientific knowledge for practice can be

generated through research. The need for nursing research

includes the following:

 Decision making

 Scientific basis for practice

 Improve quality of client care

 Professional development

 Fill the gap between knowledge and practice

 Fosters accountability, commitment and

professionalism

 Generates, refines or enlarges nursing knowledge

 Improves quality of nursing education

 IMPORTANCE OF NURSING RESEARCH

Research must be an integral part of nursing. It provides the

power to nurses to be professional and develop, define and
refine nursing knowledge for providing effective patient
care, nursing education and administration.

Some of the facts that prove the importance of nursing

research are as follows:

1. The development and utilization of nursing

knowledge is essential for continued development
in patient care; nurse can develop or refine this
knowledge by the help of nursing research.
2. Nurses need to get involved in research because the cost
of care is increasing day by day. Therefore, they must find
solution for cost-effective care through research.
3. Research also helps nurses to eliminate nursing actions
that do not achieve desired care outcome for patients.
Furthermore, nursing research findings may help nurses to
identify the practices that improve health care outcome of
patients and remain cost-effective.
4. Nursing research is essential for nurses to understand
the varied dimensions of their profession.
5. Another major reason for which nurses must get
involved in research is rapid advancement in medical
science and technology; to keep pace with this advancement,
nurses must conduct research to learn about efficacy of
particular technology in reference to positive patient outcome.
TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research is classified based on either an approach of

studying the variable or the purpose of conducting
the research.
These classification are as follows:
1. Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research
2. Basic Research and Applied Research
 1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

It is an inquiry into an identified problem, based on testing a

theory composed of variables, measured with numbers and

analysed using statistical techniques. In this type of research,

data is collected in numerical form and analysed by using

descriptive or inferential statistics. Quantitative research

involves analysis of numerical data.

2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is a field of inquiry that

crosscuts disciplines and subject matter. It involves
an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and
the reasons that govern human behaviour. Here, data
is collected in descriptive form rather than numerical
form and analysed by descriptive coding, indexing and
narrations. Qualitative research involves analysis of
data such as words, pictures or objects.
1. BASIC RESEARCH
It is performed without a specific purpose in mind. Rather, it is
primarily concerned with generation of new knowledge. It is used to
generate and expand theories that describe, explain or predict a
phenomenon of interest to the discipline without regard to its
immediate use.

Basic research is usually carried out for some of the following aims:

1. Gather and generate information.

2. Expand the body of knowledge to improve understanding about

a discipline.

3. Develop or refine theories and principles.

2. APPLIED RESEARCH
The term applied research refers to those studies which have
functional purposes and practical use or application. They focus on
finding am immediate solution to an existing problem. In this, the
researcher scientifically collects data to be used in clinical,
administrative or instructional area to find solution to the problem
and evaluate practices and identifies needs of the patient. Applied
research may be conducted to resolve a number of issues, some of
which are as follows:
• Solve problems
• Make decisions
• Evaluate something of interest
• Develop something new for immediate use.
 UNIT – II
RESEARCH PROCESS

Definition: The various tasks, decisions

and actions carried out by the researcher
to find answers to the research question
are known as research process.
 UNIT - III
RESEARCH PROBLEM
As human beings we are curious about the unknown. We ask
many questions and try to find out answers to them. Questions
are the heart of research. The formulation of research
questions is fundamental to the research. It helps the
researcher to clarify in his or her mind those questions which
need to be answered. The research problem serves as the
foundation of a research study.
 DEFINITION
A research problem is an enigmatic, perplexing or
troubling condition. The primary purpose of
research is to solve the problem or to contribute to
its solution by accumulating relevant information.
A problem statement is a clear, concise description
of the issues that need to be addressed by the
researcher and should be presented or created by
the researcher, before he/she tries to solve the
problem.
Research questions are the specific queries
researcher wants to answer in addressing the
research problem.
 SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. Experience
The nurses everyday experience provides a rich supply of
problems for investigations.
2. Nursing Literature
Ideas from studying books and articles related to the subject of
interest may trigger pertinent questions in our mind.
3. Social Issues
Global social issues of relevance to the health care community
suggest the problem area, e.g., domestic violence, gender
inequity
4. Political Climate
The political climate which places emphasis on cost
containment and improving the standards of health has
provided many avenues for research.
5. Theories

Verification of an untested nursing theory provides a relatively uncharted

territory from which research problems can be derived.

6. Ideas from external sources

Researchers, administrators, nurses, nursing faculties or field visits will

help a researcher to identify meaningful problems for research.

7. Intuition

Sometimes new ideas may strike to one’s mind like a flash. Reflective
mind is a spring of knowledge.

8. Research

Research on one problem may suggest problems for further research.

9. Brainstorming

Intensified discussion with a group of interested persons may often been

a means of identifying pertinent questions and of developing new ideas
about a problem.

10. Practical needs

Clinical practice provides a wealth of experience from which research

problems can be derived.
11. Empirical interest

Sudden awareness or insight of something that has not been noticed or

noticing things in a different way is another source of research.

12. Popular conceptions.

While taking care of health, certain traditional practices have been

practiced according to their cultural belief or certain old practices of
the new world. Numerous beliefs guide nursing practice, and they need
to be examined through research.
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

 The problem should be original, while selecting research problem

novelty should be maintained.

 The problem should be neither narrow nor vague.

 The problem should be significant, useful and socially relevant.

 The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so

that the related research material or sources of research are within
one’s reach.

 The problem should be suitable for a particular researcher to study.

 It should specify the nature of the population to be studied.

 The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously either in a
declarative or interrogative form.
 The problem should express the relationship between two or more
variables.
 Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average
researcher.
 The problem should be interesting for the researcher himself. His
interest should be purely intellectual and should not be only for a
reward or material benefit.
 Every research activity needs the patronage of a guide and the
approval and sanction of competent authority. There should be
possibility of guidance from experts.
STEPS IN THE FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Selection of a research topic

Reviewing the literature

and theories

Delimiting the research

topic

Evaluating the research

problem

Formulating final statement

of research problem
1. SELECTION OF A RESEARCH AREA

It begins with selection of a broad research topic from

personal experience, literature, previous research and
theories in which researcher is interested and has
significance for nursing profession. For example, a
researcher gets an idea to conduct a study on the
female feticide. Therefore, he or she initially begins
with such broad research topic.
2. REVIEWING LITERATURE AND THEORIES

After getting a broad idea for research, he or she needs

to review the nursing literature and theories. Literature
is reviewed to know what has already been done in
this selected area of research. Therefore, a researcher
can plan a research topic to further expand the existing
body of knowledge area in respective area of research.
 3. DELIMITING THE RESEARCH TOPIC
In this step, researcher proceeds from a general research area of interest
to more specific topic of research to conduct a study. For example,
initially a researcher decides to conduct a study on female feticide, later
in this stage researcher limits it to specific research topic ‘ a study on
perception of women about causes and prevention of female feticide in
selected rural communities of district Shimoga, Karnataka. In this stage,
a researcher clearly identifies variables, population, and setting of
research study. Furthermore, at this stage, a researcher is quite clear
about the phenomenon to be studied, where and on whom.
4. EVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Once researcher is clear about the specific research

problem, next the research problem must be carefully
evaluated for its significance, researchibility and
feasibility. Feasibility of the research problem should
be evaluated for time, cost, availability of subjects and
resources, administrative and peer support, ethical
consideration and researchers competence and interest.
 5. FORMULATING FINAL STATEMENT OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM

After establishing the significance, reserachibility and

feasibility, then researcher finally formulates a final
statement of a research problem.
A statement of research problem could be in declarative or
interrogative format.
1. DECLARATIVE FORMAT:

A descriptive study on prevalence of bedsores among

unconscious patients admitted in intensive care units of
PGIMER, Chandigarh.
An exploratory study on contributing factors of maternal
mortality in selected rural communities of district
Ludhiana, Punjab.
2. INTERROGATIVE FORMAT:

What is the influence of the level of haemoglobin on

pin site infection among patients with external
skeletal fixators admitted in orthopaedic wards of
AIIMS, New Delhi?
 FORMATS OF FORMATTING PROBLEM

It can be formatted in three ways as:

1. Declarative statement
2. Interrogative statement
3. Hypothetical statement
 1. DECLARATIVE STATEMENT

It includes information about what the researcher

intends to do (describe) the settings of the study and

the subject of the study, e.g., A study to describe the

effect of guided imagery on reducing pain for

postoperative clients in the hospital setting.

 2. INTERROGATIVE STATEMENT

It is written as a question. So the purpose of the study

is to answer the questions. E.g., What is the
relationship between the dependency level of CABG
clients and their rate of recovery?
 3. HYPOTHETICAL STATEMENT

It is stated in a testable form and that predicts a particular

relationship between 2 and more variables, e.g., Primi woman

who receive individualized instruction on breastfeeding will

have significantly more successful breastfeeding experience in

their home setting, than woman who receive structured group

instruction on breastfeeding.
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A literature review is an account of what has been already

established or published on a particular research topic

by accredited scholars and researchers.

 IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature reviews provide a handy guide to a particular topic. For

professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up-to-date
with what is current in the field.

For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review

emphasizes the credibility of the writers in their respective fields.

Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research

study.
 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE CAN HELP IN
FULFILMENT OF THE FOLLOWING OBJECTIVES:

 Identification of a research problem and development of research

questions.
 Generation of useful research question or projects / activities for the
discipline.
 Development of hypothesis to be tested in a research study.

 Helps in planning the methodology of the present research study.

 It also helps in development of research instruments.

 Identifications of suitable design and data collection methods for a

research study.
 Identification of suitable design and data collection methods for a
research study,
 Discovery of unanswered questions about subjects, concepts or
problems.
 PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of a literature review is to convey to the render

previous knowledge and facts established on a topic, and their
strengths and weaknesses. The literature review allows the
reader to be updated with the state of research in a field and
any contraindications that may exist which challenge findings
of other research studies.

Besides enhancing researcher’s knowledge about the topic,

writing a literature review helps to:

Describe the relationship of each study to other research

studies under considerations.
Identify new ways to interpret and shed light on any gaps in previous
research.

Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.

Point a way forward for further research.

See what has and has not been investigated.

 Identify potential relationships between concepts and to identify

researchable hypothesis.

 Learn how others have defined and measured key concepts.

 Identify data sources that other researchers have used.

 Develop how a research project is related to the work of others.

 SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
PRIMARY SOURCES
Literature review mostly relies on primary sources i.e.,
research reports, which are description of studies written by
researchers who conducted them.
A primary source is written by a person who developed the
theory or conducted the research, or is the description of an
investigation written by the person who conducted it.
Most primary sources are found in published literature; for
example, a nursing research article.
SECONDARY SOURCES

Secondary source research documents are description of

studies prepared by someone other than the original
researcher. They are written by people other than the
individuals who developed the theory or conducted the
research. The secondary sources may be used when primary
sources are not available or if researchers want external
opinions on an issue or problem or even the results of their
own research.
THE MAIN SOURCES FROM WHERE LITERATURE CAN
BE SEARCHED ARE AS FOLLOWS:
Magazines
and
newspaper
Research Electronic
reports database

Resources
Encyclopaedia of
Books
and dictionary literature
review

Theses Journals

Conferenc
e papers
OTHER SOURCES
1. Electronic sources
 CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature)
 MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrived System Online)
 PubMed
 MedlinePlus
 Registry of Nursing Research
 Cochrane Database of System Reviews
 ERIC
 PsycINFO
 Dissertation abstracts online
 Online Journals
 http://www.nursefriendly.com/nursing/linksections/nursingjournal.html
 http://www.nsna.org
 http://www.healthweb.org
 http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php
 http://juns.nursing.arizona.edu
 http://www.nursingweek.ccom
 Cancer Lit

 EMBASE (Exerpta Medica Database)

 ETOH (Alcohol and alcohol problems science database)

 Health STAR (Health services technology administration

and research)

 Radix (Nursing and managed care database)

 CD-ROM (Compact disc-read only memory) with research

database
2. PRINTED SOURCES

1. Journal

Names of national nursing journals

 Nursing and midwifery research journal

 Indian journal of nursing and midwifery

 The nursing journal of India

 Nightingale nursing times

 International journal of nursing education

 Indian journal of nursing studies

NAME OF INTERNATIONAL JOURNALS
 Nursing research
 Research in nursing and health

 Nursing sciences quarterly

 Western journal of nursing research

 Applied nursing research

 Biological research for nursing

 Advances in nursing sciences

 Clinical nursing research

 Worldviews on Evidence – Based Nursing

 Journal of Qualitative Research

 American Journal of Nursing

 International journal of nursing studies

STEPS OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Stage I – Annotated Bibliography

At this stage, researcher read articles, books and other types of

literature related to the topic of research and write a brief critical
synopsis of each review. After going through the reading list,
researcher will have an annotation of each source of related literature.
Later, annotation are likely to include more references of other work
since previous readings will be available to compare, but at this point
the important goal is to get accurate critical summarization of
individual works.
 STAGE II – THEMATIC ORGANIZATION

At this stage, researchers try to find common themes of

research topic and organize the literature under these themes,
subthemes or categories. Here, researchers try to organize
literature under themes, which relate to each other and are
arranged in a chronological manner. Furthermore, researchers
try to establish coherence between themes and literature
discussed under these themes.
 STAGE III – MORE READING
Based on the knowledge gained through primary reading,
researchers have a better understanding about the research topic
and the literature related to it. At this stage, researchers try to
discover specific literature materials relevant to the field of study
or research methodologies which are more relevant for their
research. They look for more literature by those authors, on those
methodologies, etc. Also, the researchers may be able to set aside
some less relevant areas or articles which they pursued initially.
They integrate the new readings into their literature review draft,
reorganize themes and read more as appropriate
 STAGE IV –WRITE INDIVIDUAL SECTIONS

At this stage, researchers start writing the literature under each thematic
section by using previously collected drafts of annotations. Here they
organize the related articles under each theme by ensuring that every
article is related to each other. Furthermore, related articles may be
grouped together by ensuring the coherence between different segments
of the literature abstracts. For each thematic section, draft annotations are
used (it is a good idea to reread the articles and revise annotations,
especially the ones read initially) to write a section which discusses the
articles relevant to that theme. While writing reviews, the researchers
focus on the theme of that section, showing how the articles relate to
each other.
 STAGE V – INTEGRATE SECTION

In this section, researchers have a list of the thematic

sections and they tie them together with an
introduction, conclusion , and some additions and
revisions in the sections to show how they relate to
each other and to the overall theme.
 POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR LITERATURE
REVIEW
 Be specific and be succinct
 Be selective
 Focus of current topics
 Ensure evidence for claims
 Focus on sources of evidences
 Account of contrary evidences
 Reference citation
 Organization of literature review
 Refering original source
 Avoid abbreviations
 VARIABLES

DEFINITION :
A variable is a characteristics of a person, object or phenomenon which
can take on different values, e.g., age, weight, monthly income etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF VARAIBLES
A variable can be classified in a number of ways based on
 Form of presentation.
 Casual relationship.
 Design of the study.
 I. BASED ON FORMS OF PRESENTATION
The variables can be classified as numerical and non-numerical variables
1. Numerical Variable
A simple example of a variable in the form of numbers is a person’s ‘weight’. It
can take on different values, since a person can have 65 kgs, 40kgs weight
and so on.
Other examples are:
 Age in years
 Monthly income
 Number of children
Because the values of all these variables are expressed in number it is called as
numerical variables
Numerical variable can be continuous or discrete.

Continuous variables are the one which are represented in a

continuum and can assume decimal values between 2
points, e.g. Height in cm (2.5cm), temperature in degree
Celsius (37.2˚C) .

By contrast, a discrete variable is one which has a finite

number of values between any points, representing discrete
quantities, e.g., number of children (1,2,3 etc.) number of
visits to a clinic (1,2,3, etc).
 NON – NUMERICAL VARIABLE
Some variables may be expressed in categories. For example, the
variable sex has 2 distinct groups as male and female. Since these
variables are expressed in categories, it is called as categorical or non
numerical variable.

It is further classified based on the:

1. Number of variables

• Constant

• Dichotomous

• Polytomous
2. Order or ranking of variables

When a variable can have only one value or category, it is known as

constant variable. Example: taxi, tree, water. When the variable has two
categories as yes/no, good/bad, rich/poor; it is known as dichotomous
variable. When a variable is divided into more than two categories, it is
called as polytomous variables. Example religion (Christian, Islam, Sikh,
Hindu).

In ordinal type, the variables are ordered or ranked in increasing or

decreasing order. Example: low income, middle income, high income.
The variables, which do not have an order or rank in them is called
nominal variable. Example (sex-male or female).
 BASED ON CASUAL RELATIONSHIP

Based on the possible causes of problems and its association between

variables, the variables are classified as:

1. Independent variable : The variables that are used to describe or

measure the factors that are assumed to cause or at least to influence
the problem are called the independent variable.

2. Dependent variable: The variable that is used to describe or

measure the problem under the study is called dependent variable.
3. Extraneous variable: The factors not measured in the study, may
increase or decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship
between independent variable and dependent variable. Environmental
variable is a type of extraneous variable which comprise of the
setting in which the study is conducted. Example: climate, family,
healthcare system and governmental organization. Measures should
be taken tom control these extraneous variable from affecting the
study.

4. Intervening variable: It is also called as confounding variable which

links the independent variable and dependent variable. It may
strengthens the relationship between the problem and possible
outcome
 BASED ON DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Based on the design of the study, the variables can be classified as

active and attribute variables.
1. Active variables: Those variables that can be manipulated
changed or controlled. Example: experimental intervention,
different teaching method(planned teaching programme, self
instruction modules).
2. Attribute variables: Those variables that cannot be
manipulated, changed or controlled and that reflect the
characteristics of the study population.
Example: age, gender, religion.
 HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a formal statement of the expected

relationships between two or more variables in a a
specified population.
OR
It is the relationship between 2 or more variables that
can be accepted or rejected.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYPOTHESIS
1. State the relationship between variables
Hypothesis states the expected relationship between the independent variable and the
dependent variable within a population.
2. Clarity
Hypothesis should be precise, specific and conceptually clear. It should be operationally
defined.
3. Uni – dimensional
It should test only one relationship at a time.
4. Justifiable
It should be based on sound justifiable rationales. Mostly hypotheses are formulated
from previous research findings. When a relatively new area is being investigated,
the researcher may have to turn to logical reasoning or personal experience to justify
the predictions.
5. Testable or verifiable
A hypothesis should be testable or verifiable. Methods and techniques must be available
for data collection and analysis. It should be testable with in a reasonable time.
6. Simple and brief
The hypothesis should be simple and brief, so that it is understandable by all concerned.
It would help in between understanding of the underlying concept and meaning.
7. Related to body of knowledge and theory
Hypothesis should emerge from the existing body of knowledge and theory and then it
should add to it.
8. It should be operationalizable
Hypothesis should be operationalizable. It should be expressed in measurable terms and
should have elucidating power. If it cannot be measured, it cannot be tested and
hence, no conclusions can be drawn .
 FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
 It expresses the relationship between the variables in such a
way that it can be empirically tested.

 It gives direction to an investigation.

 It guides the thinking process and the process of discovery.

 It acts as a framework for drawing conclusions.

 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

It can be classified as:

 Based on origin: Inductive and deductive hypothesis
 Based on formulation: Research and deductive hypothesis
 Based on anticipated relationship: Directional and non-
directional hypothesis.
 Based on complexity: Simple and complex hypothesis.
 Based on cause and effect: Associative and casual hypothesis.
 Based on cause and effect relationship: Associative and casual
hypothesis.
 BASED ON THE ORIGIN

1. Inductive Hypothesis
It begins with specific observation and move towards generalizations.
Generalizations are based on observed relationships. Researchers
observe certain patterns, trends or associations among phenomena and
then use these observations as the basis for predictions and formation of
hypothesis.

2. Deductive hypothesis
It means deriving specific statements from general ideas, theories or
principles. Specific predictions derived from general principles can be
subjected to testing through collection of observed data. If the data
matches with the hypothesized outcome then the theory is strengthened.
 BASED ON THE FORMULATION
1. Research hypothesis

These are the statements of expected relationship between the variables.

It indicates researcher’s actual expectations. It is also referred as
substantive, declarative or scientific hypothesis.

2. Null Hypothesis

It states that there is no relationship between the dependent and

independent variable. It is also known as statistical hypothesis.
 BASED ON THE ANTICIPATED RELATIONSHIP

1. Directional hypothesis
It specifies the expected relationship between the variables. While stating the
hypothesis in directional form, state whether the expected association is
‘positive’ or ‘negative’

- Positive (direct): The two variables move together and down in synch

- For example, Obesity increases the risk of heart disease.

- Negative (inverse): The two variables travel in opposite direction.

- For example. The risk of heart disease decreases with increase in exercise
and diet control.
 2. NON – DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS

It does not indicate the existence or direction of

relationship between the variables.
For example, male students differ from female
students with respect to their academic performance
in a school.
 BASED ON THE COMPLEXITY

1. Simple hypothesis
It expresses the expected relationship between one dependent
and one independent variable.
2. Complex Hypothesis
It is a prediction between two or more independent variables
and two or more dependent variables.
Eg: obesity, lack of excercise, increased dietary fat increases
the risk of heart disease and diabetes.
 BASED ON THE CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP

1. Associative Hypothesis

It proposes the relationship among variables that occur or exist together

in the real world and when one variable changes, the other change. It
identifies relationship among variables in a study, but don’t indicate
the cause and effect relation between variables.

2. Causal Hypothesis

It indicates the cause and effect relationship between the dependent and
independent variable.
STEPS IN THE FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

 Deriving a hypothesis

 Identifying the dependent and independent variables in the

hypothesis

 Stating the hypothesis

ADVANTAGE OF HYPOTHESIS

 It gives direction to the inquiry.

 It enriches (makes better)e the theory.

 It builds confidence in the researcher’s result.

Limitation of Hypothesis

 It may bias the investigator towards a particular position and

cause him to lose objectivity.
 RESERACH DESIGN

Design : It is a set of instructions to the researcher to gather

and analyze data in certain ways that will control who and
what to be studied.

Research design: It is a blueprint for conducting a study that

maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the
validity of the findings.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

 It should be appropriate to the nature and objective of the problem to

be studied.

 It should be flexible.

 The measuring instrument should yield (provide) objective, reliable

and valid data.

 It ensures appropriate statistical analysis for processing data.

 It should minimize the bias (opposing) and maximize the reliability of

the data collected and analyzed.
Purposes of research design
 It is a blueprint prepared in advance based on the objectives of the study, to
enhance orderliness in data collection and analysis.
 It helps the researcher to organize his ideas and evaluate the projected study.
Factors Influencing The Choice Of Research Design
 Researcher’s knowledge
 Researcher’s experience
 Availability of time
 Availability of resources
 Availability of subjects
 Degree of control
 Precision required (accurate estimate)
 Nature of the phenomenon (incident) being studied
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
RESEARCH DESIGN

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Design Design

Experimental Non – Experimental

Descriptive
True

Co-relational
Quasi
Comparative

Pre – experimental Others

 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Quantitative research designs tend to be more structures. Quantitative

researchers specify the nature of the investigation, comparisons to be
made, methods to control extraneous variables, timing of data
collection, the study setting, and prior information to be given to the
participants all before a single piece of data is gathered. During the
process of data collection, modifications cannot be made.

Based on the nature of investigation the quantitative research design can

be classified as

 Experimental research design

 Non – experimental design

1. Experimental Research Design
Experiment:
It is a scientific investigation in which observations are made and data are collected
according to a set of well defined criteria.
Experimental Design
It is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation to examine probability (it is the
measure of the likelihood that an event will occur) and causality among selected
variables for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena.
Characteristics
 Manipulation
 Control
 Randomization
 Replication
 MANIPULATION

It means doing something to atleast some subject, which is termed

as the experimental treatment or intervention. The researcher
consciously manipulates the independent variable by the
administration of intervention to subjects and observes the effect on
the dependent variable.

Eg: Music as an effective pain relief measure for cancer patients.

Independent variable (music) is given to some cancer patients and

it is withheld for others.
 CONTROL
It is obtained by manipulation, by randomization, by
protocols, and by control group. Control group is the
group of subjects who do not receive any treatment or
intervention and their performance is used to evaluate
the performance of experimental group.
 RANDOMIZATION

It is also known as random assignment. It means

providing equal chance for every unit of target
population to be included as a study sample, at the
same time to be either as an experimental or control
group.
 REPLICATION

It means the experiment should be repeated more than

once. It helps to increase the accuracy of the
experiment, with which the main effects and
interaction can be estimated.
 STEPS INVOLVED IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 Identify the target population
 Select the sample randomly from population

 Group or pair subjects as experimental and control group by randomly

assigning the subjects.
 Do pre-test and record all characteristics of the groups.

 Identify and control all intervening variables.

 Manipulate the independent variable for experimenting group and

withhold it for control group.
 Do post-test for both the groups and record the difference.

 Compare the change in experimental group with those of control

groups.
 Compare the values with statistically computed values to judge the
significance of the differences.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental designs

True Quasi Pre-experimental

Non – One shot

Pre test , Post-test equivalent case study
Group Design group post test
only

One group
Solomon four study
Non – equivalent
group design
group pretest,
posttest design

The static
Post test only group
Time series design comparison
control group design
 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

True experimental studies are also known as random

assignment study. It involves random assignment of
participants to more than one purposively created
group, and then comparison of outcomes for the
created groups.
 TYPES
1. Pretest – Posttest control group design

In this, the subjects are assigned randomly to experimental and

control groups. Pretest and posttest are carried out before and
after the manipulation of independent variable in experimental
group and the effect of the treatment is observed.
 Experimental Pre Intervention
group Post test
test
Random
Assignment

Control group Pre

test Post test
 2. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
It is an extension of the previous design and probably the most
powerful approach. In this, subjects are randomly assigned for
2 experimental and 2 control groups. Pre and posttest are
carried out for one experimental and one control before and
after the manipulation of independent variables in the
experiment group.
Where as only posttest is carried out for one
experimental and one control group after the manipulation of
independent variable in experimental group. Results obtained
are compared with all the 4 groups.
 Experimental
group Pretest Intervention Post test

Control group Pretest Post test

Random
Assignment
Experimental Post test
Intervention
group

Control group Post test

 3. POSTTEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

It is also known as after only control group design. In

this, subjects are assigned randomly to both the
groups. Only posttest is carried out after the
introduction of manipulation for experimental group.
 Experimental
Group Intervention Posttest
Random
Assignment
Control Group
Posttest
 II. QUASI – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The word quasi means as if or almost. A quasi – experimental study is
almost like a true experiment and for better than pre-experimental
design, as it employs a means to compare groups. A quasi-experiment
design is one in which full experiment control, randomization is not
possible. It involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested
without any random pre selective process. The groups are chosen and
assigned out of convenience rather than through randomization. It is
otherwise known as semi-experimental design.
 TYPES
1. Non-equivalent group, post test only.
In this control and experimental group are not equivalent. It
involves finding out the effectiveness of an intervention, by
comparing both the groups, after intervention to the
experimental group. The drawback of this design is that, the
two groups might not be same before intervention and may
differ in several ways that influence the intervention.
 Experimental Intervention Posttest
Non group
equivalent

Control group Posttest

2. NON – EQUIVALENT GROUP, PRETEST – POSTTEST DESIGN

It is also known as four celled design without use of

randomization. In this the experimental and control
groups are not equivalent. Comparing pretest results
of both the groups will indicate degree of equivalency
between experimental and control group.
 Experimental
Group Pre-test Intervention Post Test
Non
Equivalent
Control Group Pre-test Post Test
 3. TIME SERIES DESIGN
Several assessment are obtained from a group or groups,
before and after the experimental intervention. Measures
at several points of time prior and subsequent to the
program provides a more reliable picture if achievement
by the experimental group after intervention. When it
involves observation of single group it is called single
group time series design.
Pre-test Intervention Post-test
 When several assessments are made on
experimental and control group, it is called
multiple group time series design.
 Experimental
Group Pre test Intervention Post test

Non
Equivalent
Control Pretest Post test
Group