PRE – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

TYPES: 1. ONE – SHOT CASE STUDY

 Here the subjects are presented with an intervention and the intervention is presumed to
cause changes in the group.
 The primary goal is to identify whether the intervention had any effect on the outcome.
 It is of little value as an experiment, as it is impossible to determine the effect of
intervention without a comparison group.

Intervention Post test

2. ONE GROUP PRETEST AND POSTTEST DESIGN

 A single group is observed before and after the intervention.

 The inclusion of pre-test helps to determine the baseline scores for

comparison of the outcome.

 Absence of control group reduces the usefulness of the study.

Pre-test Intervention Post test

3. THE STATIC GROUP COMPARISON STUDY

 Here two groups are chosen. One group receives intervention and the other does not.

 A post test score is then determined to measure the difference after the intervention,
between the two groups.

 As there is no pre-testing, the differences between the two groups prior to the study
are unknown.

Group I Intervention Post test

Group II No Intervention Post test

NON – EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 It describes the current existing characteristics

 It helps to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation

as it naturally occurs.

 It is used in situations, when manipulation of independent

variable is not possible.
TYPES OF NON – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

NON – EXPERIMENTAL
DESCRIPTIVE

DESIGN
CORRELATIONAL

COMPARATIVE

OTHERS
DESCRIPTIVE
SURVEY

SIMPLE DESCRIPTIVE
STUDY DESIGN

COMPARATIVE
DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
CORRELATIONAL
SIMPLE

PREDICTION
COMPARATIVE
EX-POST FACTO

CORRELATIONAL
CAUSAL
COMPARATIVE
1. DESCRIPTIVE STUDY DESIGN

It is designed to gain more information about characteristics within a

particular field of study. Its purpose is to describe, observe and document
aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs.

The various types of descriptive study designs are:

1. Survey
2. Simple descriptive study design
3. Comparative descriptive study design
4. Developmental studies
a. Survey
 The survey is a non-experimental descriptive method. It measures variables by asking
people questions and examines relationship among variables.

 It examines characteristics, behaviour, attitude and intentions of a group.

 It can be done as large scale, small scale or cross- cultural survey.

 Large scale survey involves the whole country. E.g. Indian Population

 Small scale survey involves a smaller sample size.

 Cross – cultural involves 3 to 6 nations. Small size typically involves 1000 per nation.
TYPES OF SURVEY

1. CROSS-SECTIONAL SURVEY : It is used to gather information on a population at

a single point of time. It is useful in obtaining overall picture of the population as it
stands at the time of the study.

2. LONGITUDINAL SURVEY: They are used to gather data over a period of time.

3. DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY: It is used to describe the phenomenon objectively. It

provides accurate information regarding the subjects.

4. EXPLORATORY SURVEY: The researcher can gain knowledge regarding unknown

aspects of a phenomenon.
CONT.

5. EXPLANATORY SURVEY: It provides causal explanations of a situation.

6. COMPARATIVE SURVEY: They are used to compare and contrast two or

more groups one or more designated variables, at a single point of time.

7. EVALUATIVE SURVEY: It is descriptive in nature. Value judgement is made

by comparing the information collected with the criteria.

8. CORRELATIONAL SURVEY: It relates to multiple variables measured at a

single point of time from the subjects.
ADVANTAGES

 A great deal of information can be obtained from a large population.

 It reduces unnecessary wastage of time and cost.

 It promotes easy access to the samples.

 Quick responses can be obtained from the samples.

 Samples represent the population.

 Information obtained will be accurate and it is easy to create data sets.

DISADVANTAGES

 Breath of information is emphasized than depth

 Information obtained tends to be superficial.
 Confidentiality and privacy issues can occur.
 It is limited to those who have access to technology, otherwise
it can be time consuming and costlier.
SIMPLE DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN

It is used to examine the characteristics of a sample. It helps to

describe the phenomenon of interest, identifies the variables within
the phenomenon and develops conceptual and operative definitions
of the variables.
ADVANTAGES

 It saves time and less expensive.

 It is used as a preliminary research on a topic.

DISADVANTAGES

 Only limited information is obtained.

 It does not identify the extent of a relationship between

the variables.
COMPARATIVE DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN

This design investigates the relationship of one variable to

another by examining the differences on the dependent variable
between the groups of subjects that occur naturally in a setting.
ADVANTAGES

 It helps to identify the similarities and dissimilarities of

groups on selected variables.

 Detailed information about several groups can be

obtained.
DEVELOPMENTAL DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN

 It not only examines the present status of the variables but also the
patterns of growth or change as a function of time. It is further
classified as:

1. CROSS-SECTIONAL AND LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

2. RETROSPECTIVE AND PROSPECTIVE STUDIES

1. CROSS – SECTIONAL STUDIES

They are also known as one –shot or status studies. It is designed to

study some phenomenon by taking a cross – section f it at one time.
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

Information is collected from subjects over an extended period of time. Data are collected at
several points of time. The researcher may then analyse the changes in the population and attempt
to describe and explain them. The major issues of concern are loss of subjects and difficulty in
tracing the subjects, as the study extends over time.

There are three main types of longitudinal design.

1. Trend Studies

2. Cohort Studies

3. Panel Studies
TREND STUDIES

It is longitudinal and retrospective in nature. It helps to find out the

happenings of the past, present and future in a population group. It is useful
in forecasting the trends. Since, trends studies may be conducted over a long
period, it does not necessarily be conducted by one researcher. A researcher
may combine data from several studies of the same population in order to
show a trend.
COHORT STUDIES

It is also longitudinal and retrospective in nature. It is used to study

the existence of a specific common characteristics such as age, year
of birth, marriage or graduation within sub-population overtime for
identifying generational differences.
 PANEL STUDIES

It is longitudinal and prospective in nature, in which the

information's are collected from the same respondents over a period
of time to ascertain the changes. The sample of subjects which are
used every time is called as a panel.
ADVANTAGES

 It identifies the changes in variable overtime.

 Depth of information can be obtained.

 It helps to assess the trends.

 DISADVANTAGES

 It is expensive in terms of time, effort and money.

 Loss of subjects may occur, which may hinder the study.

 Maturational changes may occur.

II. CORRELATIONAL
DESIGN
 Itstudies the relationship between the
variables.

TYPES:
1. Simple correlation
2. Prediction correlation
1. SIMPLE CORRELATION STUDIES

 It helps to examine the relationship between two or more

variables in a single group.

A relationship between two or more variables does not mean one

causes the changes in the other, e.g., a study to assess the teacher
effectiveness and student performance.
PREDICTION CORRELATION

 It examines the predictive nature of the relationship between the variables.

It is further classified into two as:

1. Simple predictive studies

2. Multiple regression
1. SIMPLE PREDICTIVE STUDIES

The performance of one variable (the predictor) is used to

predict the performance on a second variable (the
outcome).
 2. MULTIPLE REGRESSIONS

It examines the several variables (predictor) to predict the

performance on a single variable.
ADVANTAGES

 It is used to investigate complex relationship among the

variables.

 Large amount of data can be obtained about a problem

area.

 It stimulates further research.

 DISADVANTAGES

 Variables of interest are not manipulated.

 The variables of interest occur in its natural setting and are out
of control of researcher.

 It is difficult to determine a causal relationship between the

variables because it lacks manipulation, control and
randomization.
3. COMPARATIVE STUDY DESIGN

It is a study design which helps to examine one variable with 2 or

more groups.

It is sub-divided as:

1. Ex-post facto studies

2. Correlation causal comparative studies

1. EX-POST FACTO STUDIES

It also known as causal – comparative or simple comparative. It

investigates the relationship between independent and dependent
variables in situations where it is impossible to manipulate the
independent variable. For example, obesity is related to increased
incidence of CAD. Here, the presumed cause (obesity) is not
manipulated; instead the subjects who are obese are located to identify
the effects on heart.
CORRELATIONAL CAUSAL COMPARATIVE

It uses sophisticated correlation models to investigate the possible

cause and effect relationship. In this presumed causal condition has
already has already occurred, potential extraneous variables are
controlled, and then the existing differences between the groups are
being compared with the variables.
ADVANTAGES

 This design offers high level of control.

 Causal relationship between the variables can be identified.

DISADVANTAGES

 Selection of subjects who are as similar as possible on all the

characteristics except the independent variable should be made.

 Generalization may be an issue of concern beyond the subjects

studied.
4. Other Quantitative Research Designs

1. BLIND STUDIES

In a blind study the study population does not know whether it is

getting real or fake study treatment. The goal of this study is to
isolate the placebo effect from the real effect.
2. DOUBLE BLIND STUDIES

The researcher does not know the identify of experimental and

placebo groups. Likewise neither the researcher nor the study
participants know who is receiving real and who is receiving fake
treatment. Thereby it tries to eliminate the researcher’s bias.
3. CASE STUDIES

This method is used intensively to analyse the specific details of

an individual case which may be a person, group, process,
community or society. The data collected are organized in terms
of the case and the findings are generalized to other cases of
similar type. Although the number of subjects tends to be small,
the number of variables involved is large.
NATURAL EXPERIMENTS

Study of a group if subjects, who are exposed to a natural or other

cause that have an impact on health or other consequences is
compared with a non-experimental group.
 NEED ASSESSMENT

It is a study in which the researchers collect data to identify the

needs of the group, community or organization. It helps to
determine the need for an intervention or whether the program is
meeting the needs of the people.
SECONDARY ANALYSIS

 It makes use of the data gathered in the previous study to

test new hypothesis or explore relationships.
 QUALITATIVE DESIGNS

 It is flexible, elastic and capable of adjusting. It merges together

various strategies and at times the researcher himself becomes a
research instruments of data collection.
 FEATURES

 The variables are studied as it exits in the real world.

 It is flexible, elastic and strives for an understanding of the whole

phenomena.

 Elucidation of complete nature of a particular phenomenon

occurs.
PHASES OF QUALITATIVE DESIGN

 There are three phases of qualitative studies, they are:

1. Orientation and overview

2. Focused exploration

3. Confirmation and closure

ORIENTATION AND OVERVIEW

Not knowing about a phenomenon drives the inquiry of qualitative

researchers forward. The qualitative researchers try to find out the various
aspects of the phenomenon under study in this phase.
 FOCUSED EXPLORATION

 It is the more focused and in depth scrutiny of those

aspect of the phenomenon that are judged to be
important.
CONFIRMATION AND CLOSURE

 After obtaining a trustworthy findings, the researcher

discusses the understanding with the study participants
 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN

1. Ethnography
2. Phenomenology
3. Grounded Theory
4. Historical Research
5. Narrative Analysis
6. Descriptive Qualitative Studies
7. Secondary Analysis
8. Qualitative Outcome Analysis
 1. ETHNOGRAPHY
It is a qualitative inquiry which involves description and interpretation of
cultural behaviour of a group of people. It aims to learn the cultural
behaviour from its member of a cultural group. It provides access to health
beliefs and health practice of a culture and subculture.

Thus, helps to identify behaviours affecting health and illness.

 2. PHENOMENOLOGY

It is a qualitative inquiry which focuses on people

experience regarding some phenomenon as lived. The
researcher strives to gain information regarding
informants experience by establishing as in-depth
conversation with the informants.
 3. GROUNDED THEORY
It is used to generate comprehensive explanations of phenomenon
that are grounded in reality. It helps to develop and refine
theoretically relevant categories that focus on emerging
theoretical concern. It contributes to the development of middle
range theories of phenomenon relevant to nurses.
4. HISTORICAL RESEARCH

It is the systematic collection, evaluation and interpretation

of data relating to past occurrences. Historical researchers
are usually qualitative, but quantitative data are sometimes
used.
 5. NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
The basic concept of the narrative analysis is that the individuals
communicate their inner desire and motive to the external world by
constructing, reconstructing and narrating stories. It focuses on
how individuals make sense of events in their through the way of
stories.
6. DESCRIPTIVE QUALITATIVE STUDIES

Some qualitative studies do not have a formal name or do

not fit into any of the types. Such studies are referred as
descriptive qualitative studies. It is the method of choice to
describe an event or phenomenon directly.
 7. SECONDARY ANALYSIS

It is an analytic, retrospective interpretation and

cross – validation of the existing data, to confirm
new result. It helps to exploit rich data sets.
8. QUALITATIVE OUTCOME ANALYSIS

It helps to find out the theory practice gap in

qualitative research. It focuses on understanding the
phenomenon in its specific context.
 ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. It is economical; it saves lot of time, manpower and money.

2. It builds self – confidence

3. It provides sense of satisfaction and success from the beginning

to its completion.

4. It provides direction to the researcher.