Consumers, Producers, and The Efficiency of Markets

Consumers, Producers, and
7 the Efficiency of Markets

PRINCIPLES OF
MICROECONOMICS
FOURTH CANADIAN EDITION
N. G R E G O R Y M A N K I W
R O N A L D D. K N E E B O N E
K E N N E T H J. M c K ENZIE
NICHOLAS ROWE
PowerPoint® Slides
by Ron Cronovich
Canadian adaptation by Marc Prud’Homme
© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd.
In this chapter, look for the answers to these
questions:
 What is consumer surplus? How is it related to the
demand curve?
 What is producer surplus? How is it related to the supply
curve?
 Do markets produce a desirable allocation of resources?
Or could the market outcome be improved upon?
© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 2

Welfare Economics
 Recall, the allocation of resources refers to:
• how much of each good is produced
• which producers produce it
• which consumers consume it
 Welfare economics:
the study of how the allocation of resources affects
economic well-being
 First, we look at the well-being of consumers.

Willingness to Pay (WTP)
A buyer’s willingness to pay for a good is the maximum
amount the buyer will pay for that good.
WTP measures how much the buyer values the good.
name WTP Example:

4 buyers’ WTP
Anthony $250 for an iPod
Chad 175
Flea 300
John 125

WTP and the Demand Curve
Q: If price of iPod is $200, who will buy an iPod, and what
is quantity demanded?
A: Anthony & Flea will buy an iPod,

Chad & John will not.
name WTP Hence, Qd = 2
Anthony $250 when P = $200.
Chad 175
Flea 300
John 125

Derive the
demand P (price
who buys Qd
of iPod)
schedule:
$301 & up nobody 0
name WTP 251 – 300 Flea 1
Anthony $250 176 – 250 Anthony, Flea 2

Chad 175 Chad, Anthony,
126 – 175 3
Flea
Flea 300
John, Chad,
John 125 0 – 125 4
Anthony, Flea
P
$350
P Qd
$300
$250 $301 & up 0
$200 251 – 300 1

$150 176 – 250 2
$100
126 – 175 3
$50
0 – 125 4
$0 Q
0 1 2 3 4
About the Staircase Shape…
P
This D curve looks like a staircase
$350 with 4 steps – one per buyer.
$300 If there were a huge # of buyers,
as in a competitive market,
$250
there would be a huge #
$200 of very tiny steps,
$150 and it would look
$100 more like a smooth
curve.
$50
$0 Q
0 1 2 3 4
P
Flea’s WTP
$350 At any Q,
$300 Anthony’s WTP the height of
the D curve is the
$250 Chad’s WTP WTP of the
$200 marginal buyer,
John’s
the buyer who
$150 WTP
would leave the
market if P were
$100
any higher.
$50
$0 Q
0 1 2 3 4
Consumer Surplus (CS)
Consumer surplus is the amount a buyer is willing to pay
minus the buyer actually pays:
CS = WTP – P
name WTP Suppose P = $260.

Anthony $250 Flea’s CS = $300 – 260 = $40.
Chad 175 The others get no CS because they
do not buy an iPod at this price.
Flea 300
Total CS = $40.
John 125

CS and the Demand Curve
P
Flea’s WTP
$350 P = $260
$300 Flea’s CS =
$300 – 260 = $40
$250
Total CS = $40
$200
$150
$100
$50
$0 Q
0 1 2 3 4
P
Flea’s WTP
$350 Instead, suppose
Anthony’s WTP P = $220
$300
Flea’s CS =
$250 $300 – 220 = $80
$200 Anthony’s CS =
$250 – 220 = $30
$150
Total CS = $110
$100
$50
$0 Q
0 1 2 3 4
P
$350 The lesson:
Total CS equals the
$300 area under
$250 the demand curve
above the price,
$200 from 0 to Q.
$150
$100
$50
$0 Q
0 1 2 3 4
CS with Lots of Buyers & a Smooth D Curve
Price P The demand for shoes
per pair
$ 60
At Q = 5 (thousand), 50
the marginal buyer is
willing to pay $50 for 40
pair of shoes. 30
Suppose P = $30. 1000s of pairs
20 of shoes
Then his consumer
10
surplus = $20. D
0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CS with Lots of Buyers & a Smooth D Curve
CS is the area b/w P P The demand for shoes
and the D curve, from
0 to Q. $ 60
Recall: area of 50
a triangle equals h
½ x base x height 40
Height of 30
this triangle is
$60 – 30 = $30. 20
So, 10
CS = ½ x 15 x $30 D
0 Q
= $225.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
How a Higher Price Reduces CS
If P rises to $40, P
1. Fall in CS
CS = ½ x 10 x $20 60
due to buyers
= $100. leaving market
50
Two reasons for the
fall in CS. 40
30
2. Fall in CS due to 20
remaining buyers 10
D
paying higher P 0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1:
demand curve
Consumer surplus 50
P
A. Find marginal $ 45
buyer’s WTP at 40
Q = 10.
35
B. Find CS for
30
P = $30.
25
Suppose P falls to $20. 20
How much will CS
15
increase due to…
10
C. buyers entering
5
the market
0
D. existing buyers paying
0 5 10 15 20 Q
25
lower price
17
demand curve
Answers P
50
$ 45
A. At Q = 10, marginal
buyer’s WTP is $30. 40
B. CS = ½ x 10 x $10 35
= $50 30
25
P falls to $20.
20
C. CS for the
15
additional buyers
= ½ x 10 x $10 = $50 10
5
D. Increase in CS
on initial 10 units 0
= 10 x $10 = $100 0 5 10 15 20 Q
25
18
Cost and the Supply Curve
 Cost is the value of everything a seller must give up to
produce a good (i.e., opportunity cost).
 Includes cost of all resources used to produce good,
including value of the seller’s time.
 Example: Costs of 3 sellers in the lawn-cutting business.
A seller will only produce and sell

name cost
the good if the price exceeds his or
Angelo $10 her cost.
Hunter 20 Hence, cost is a measure of
willingness to sell.
Kitty 35
P Qs
Derive the supply schedule
from the cost data: $0 – 9 0
10 – 19 1
name cost 20 – 34 2
Angelo $10 35 & up 3
Hunter 20
Kitty 35

P
$40 P Qs
$0 – 9 0
$30
10 – 19 1
$20
20 – 34 2
$10 35 & up 3
$0 Q
0 1 2 3
P
$40 At each Q, the height
Kitty’s of the S curve
$30 is the cost of the
cost
marginal seller,
Hunter’s the seller who would
$20 cost leave the market if the
price were any lower.
$10 Angelo’s cost
$0 Q
0 1 2 3
Producer Surplus
P
$40 PS = P – cost
Producer surplus (PS):

$30 the amount a seller
is paid for a good
$20 minus the seller’s cost.
$10
$0 Q
0 1 2 3
Producer Surplus and the S Curve
P PS = P – cost
$40 Suppose P = $25.

Kitty’s
Angelo’s PS = $15
$30 cost Hunter’s PS = $5
Hunter’s
$20 Kitty’s PS = $0
cost
Total PS = $20
$10 Angelo’s cost Total PS equals the area
above the supply curve
$0 Q under the price, from 0 to
Q.
0 1 2 3
PS with Lots of Sellers & a Smooth S Curve
Price P The supply of shoes
per pair
60
Suppose P = $40. 50 S
At Q = 15(thousand), 40
the marginal seller’s 30
cost is $30, 1000s of pairs
20 of shoes
and her producer
surplus is $10. 10
0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
PS with Lots of Sellers & a Smooth S Curve
PS is the area b/w The supply of shoes
P
P and the S curve,
from 0 to Q. 60
The height of this 50 S
triangle is
40
$40 – 15 = $25.
30
So, h
PS = ½ x b x h 20
= ½ x 25 x $25
10
= $312.5
0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
How a Lower Price Reduces PS
If P falls to $30, P
1. Fall in PS
PS = ½ x 15 x $15 60 due to sellers
= $112.5 leaving market S
50
Two reasons for the
fall in PS. 40
30
2. Fall in PS due to 20
remaining sellers 10
getting lower P
0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
supply curve
Producer Surplus P
50
A. Find marginal 45
seller’s cost 40
at Q = 10.
35
B. Find PS for
30
P = $20.
25
Suppose P rises to $30. 20
Find the increase
15
in PS due to…
10
C. selling 5
5
additional units
0
D. getting a higher price
0 5 10 15 20 Q
25
on the initial 10 units
28
What Do CS, PS, and Total Surplus Measure?
CS = (value to buyers) – (amount paid by buyers)

CS measures the benefit buyers receive
from participating in the market.
PS = (amount received by sellers) – (cost to sellers)

PS measures the benefit sellers receive
from participating in the market.
Total surplus = CS + PS
TS measures the total gains from trade in a market.

The Market’s Allocation of Resources
 In a market economy, the allocation of resources
is decentralized, determined by the interactions
of many self-interested buyers and sellers.
 Is the market’s allocation of resources desirable? Or
would a different allocation of resources make society
better off?
 To answer this, we use total surplus as a measure of
society’s well-being.

Measuring Society’s Well-Being
Total surplus
= CS + PS
= (value to buyers) – (amount paid by buyers)
+ (amount received by sellers) – (cost to sellers)
= (value to buyers) – (cost to sellers)

Market Efficiency
Total
surplus = (value to buyers) – (cost to sellers)
An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total

surplus. Efficiency means:
• Raising or lowering the quantity of a good
would not increase total surplus.
• The goods are being produced by the producers with
lowest cost.
• The goods are being consumed by the buyers who
value them most highly.

Market Efficiency
Total
surplus = (value to buyers) – (cost to sellers)
 Efficiency means making the pie as big as possible.

 In contrast, equity refers to whether the pie is divided
fairly.
 What’s “fair” is subjective, harder to evaluate.
 Hence, we focus on efficiency as the goal,
even though policymakers in the real world usually care
about equity, too.

Evaluating the Market Equilibrium
P
Market eq’m:
P = $30 60
Q = 15,000 50 S
Total surplus
40 CS
= CS + PS
30
Is the market eq’m PS
efficient? 20
10
D
0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Which Buyers Get to Consume the Good?
Every buyer P
whose WTP is 60
≥ $30 will buy. S
50
Every buyer
40
whose WTP is
< $30 will not. 30
So, the buyers who 20
value the good most
10
highly are the ones D
who consume it. 0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Which Sellers Produce the Good?
Every seller whose P

cost is ≤ $30 will 60
produce the good.
50 S
Every seller whose
cost is > $30 will not. 40
Hence, the sellers 30

with the lowest cost 20
produce the good.
10
D
0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Does Eq’m Q Maximize Total Surplus?
At Q = 20, P
cost of producing
the marginal unit 60
is $35 50 S
value to consumers
40
of the marginal unit
is only $20 30
Hence, can increase 20
total surplus
by reducing Q. 10
D
This is true at any Q 0 Q
greater than 15.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Does Eq’m Q Maximize Total Surplus?
At Q = 10, P
cost of producing
the marginal unit 60
is $25 50 S
value to consumers
40
of the marginal unit
is $40 30
Hence, can increase 20
total surplus
by increasing Q. 10
D
This is true at any Q 0 Q
less than 15. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Evaluating the Market Eq’m: Summary
Is the “free” market equilibrium allocation of resources
efficient? Does it maximize total surplus?
• The eq’m Q maximizes total surplus;
• The goods are produced by the producers with lowest
cost; and
• The goods are consumed by the buyers who value
them most highly.

These observations lead to three insights about market
outcomes:
1. Free markets allocate the supply of goods to the buyers
who value them most highly, as measured by their
willingness to pay;
2. Free markets allocate the demand of goods to the
sellers who can produce them at least cost; and
3. Free markets produce the quantity of goods that
maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.

Therefore, economic well-being cannot be increased by
changing the allocation of consumption among buyers
or the allocation of production among sellers.
The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the
sum of consumer and producer surplus. It generates an
efficient allocation of resources.
The gov’t cannot improve on the market outcome.
Laissez faire (French for “allow them to do”): the gov’t
should not interfere with the market

Why Non-Market Allocations Are Usually Bad
 Suppose the allocation of resources were instead
determined by a central planner (e.g., the Communist
leaders of the former Soviet Union.)
 To choose an efficient allocation, the planner would need
to know every seller’s cost
and every buyer’s WTP, for each of the
thousands of goods produced in the economy.
 This is practically impossible, so centrally planned

economies are never very efficient.

CONCLUSION
 This chapter used welfare economics to demonstrate one
of the Ten Principles:
Markets are usually a good way to
organize economic activity.
 But we assumed markets are perfectly competitive.
 In the real world, sometimes there are
market failures, when unregulated markets fail to
allocate resources efficiently. Causes:
• market power – a single buyer or seller can influence
the market price, e.g. monopoly
• externalities – side effects of transactions,
e.g. pollution

CONCLUSION
 When markets fail, public policy may remedy the
problem and increase efficiency.
 Welfare economics sheds light on market failures and
gov’t policies.
 Despite the possibility of market failure,
the assumptions in this chapter work well in many
markets, and the invisible hand remains extremely
important.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
 The height of the D curve reflects the value of the good

to buyers—their willingness to pay for it.
 Consumer surplus is the difference between what buyers
are willing to pay for a good and what they actually pay.
 On the graph, consumer surplus is the area between P
and the D curve.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
 The height of the S curve is sellers’ cost of producing the

good. Sellers are willing to sell if the price they get is at
least as high as their cost.
 Producer surplus is the difference between what sellers
receive for a good and their cost of producing it.
 On the graph, producer surplus is the area between P
and the S curve.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
 To measure of society’s well-being, we use
total surplus, the sum of consumer and producer surplus.
 Efficiency means that total surplus is maximized, that the

goods are produced by sellers with lowest cost, and that
they are consumed by buyers who most value them.
 Under perfect competition, the market outcome is
efficient. Altering it would reduce total surplus.

End: Chapter 7

Consumers, Producers, and The Efficiency of Markets

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Consumers, Producers, and

7 the Efficiency of Markets

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 2

 First, we look at the well-being of consumers.

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 3

name WTP Example:

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 4

A: Anthony & Flea will buy an iPod,

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 5

name WTP 251 – 300 Flea 1

Anthony $250 176 – 250 Anthony, Flea 2

$200 251 – 300 1

name WTP Suppose P = $260.

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 10

A seller will only produce and sell

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 20

Producer surplus (PS):

$40 Suppose P = $25.

CS = (value to buyers) – (amount paid by buyers)

PS = (amount received by sellers) – (cost to sellers)

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 29

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 30

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 31

An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 32

 Efficiency means making the pie as big as possible.

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 33

Every seller whose P

Hence, the sellers 30

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 39

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 40

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 41

 This is practically impossible, so centrally planned

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 42

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 43

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 44

 The height of the D curve reflects the value of the good

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 45

 The height of the S curve is sellers’ cost of producing the

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 46

 Efficiency means that total surplus is maximized, that the

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 47

© 2008 Nelson Education Ltd. 48

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