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Dyslexia - An introductory

Guide to Diagnosis
Richard Ward
What is Dyslexia?
• “Dyslexia causes difficulties in quite
specific areas of learning. It usually
affects reading, writing and spelling, but
can also influence mathematical skills.
The condition is hard to define precisely
because dyslexia often overlaps with
other types of specific learning
difficulties which can also affect spoken
language and motor skills.”
– http://www.channel4.com/life/microsites/D/dyslexia/what_is.html
• The word 'dyslexia' comes from the
Greek and means 'difficulty with words'.
• It is cause by a difference in the brain
area that deals with language. It affects
the under-lying skills that are needed for
learning to read, write and spell.
• Around 4% of the population is severely
dyslexic. A further 6% have mild to
moderate problems. Dyslexia occurs in
people from all backgrounds and of all
abilities, from people who cannot read
to those with university degrees.
Dyslexia in Adults (post 18)
• A lot of adults have never had a
diagnosis.
• This can often lead to confusing and
conflicting impressions on their ability to
learn
– Analysis should help define a leaning style
to compensate for this.
What to look out for.
 A marked discrepancy between ability
and the standard of work being
produced.
 A persistent or severe problem with
spelling, even with ‘easy’ or common
words.
 Difficulties with comprehension as a
result of slow reading speed.
 Poor short term memory, especially for
language based information, which
results in the inefficient processing into
long term memory.
 Difficulties with organisation,
classification and categorisation.
• Note-taking may present problems due
to spelling difficulties, poor short term
memory and poor listening skills.
 Handwriting may be poor and unformed,
especially when writing under pressure.
 Students often show a lack of fluency in
expressing their ideas, or show
difficulties with vocabulary.
• Some students may have continuing
pronunciation or word finding difficulties,
which may inhibit them when talking or
discussing in large groups.
Diagnosis
• Standard tests are rarely used after 18.
• Reading and Spelling ages are NOT
used
– They are demeaning and patronising to the
learner, and give little indication to the
source of difficulties.
• Diagnosis therefor looks to qualitative
rather than quantitative methodology.
– This gives a clearer view to the specific
learning difficulties.
• Dyslexia is individual and affects all
levels of literacy.
– Thus, learners at all levels of education
may reveal difficulties, although they can
cope with advance demands given ample
time and assistance.
What methodologies?
• There is no one test for dyslexia, due to
the sheer range of specific learning
difficulties.
• Therefore, a more holistic approach to
diagnosis should be used.
– This should target the specifics more
accurately, allowing a more personalised
learning strategy to be developed.
Holistic Approach
• These may include:
– In depth interview, including a learning
history and profile of areas of difficulty.
– A miscue analysis of reading, including
reading style and comprehension,
reinforced by single word testing
– Spelling error analysis from a diagnostic
dictation.
– An analysis of a piece of free writing.
» Diagnosing Dyslexia, (Cynthia Klein)’99
What these reveal:
• Whether the learners difficulties are
dyslexia
• The learners strengths and weaknesses
(auditory, visual, motor)
• How difficulties present themselves
• Recommendations for assisting the
learner.
The learner must be a full
participant in the diagnosis.
This will help avoid upset, and
worry. The learner must know
why diagnostics are taking
place.
The Diagnostic interview
• Current information
– learner to write contact information
– learners attitude and perceptions of
learning.
• Schooling
– Any prior problems
• Background/History
– What other factors could explain difficulties
– Is the learner bilingual or multilingual, are
there problems in the first language?
– Any physical problems?
• Language/Listening behaviours
– Any undue problems with auditory /
auditory-motor skills.
• Learners description of their reading
– What does the learner like to read
– Establish “reading level” (NOT AGE)
– Do they like to read?
– What area of reading is difficult?
• Learners description of writing / spelling
– Again try to establish a spelling level
– Consistency issues
• Maths
– Some dyslexic learners have no problems
with maths
– Some may find formula difficult to visualise
– Does the learner transpose numbers?
• Memory difficulties
– difficulty remembering sequences
(alphabet, calendar etc)
• Spatial / Temporal
– Difficulty learning to tell the time
– problems following directions
• Visual / Motor
– Does the learner want to write one thing,
but find they have written another?
– How does the learner hold the pen?
Reading
• Reading analysis is the second stage of
the diagnostic process. To gain an
insight into the type and extent of the
difficulties faced.
– First a reading passage must be selected
(this requires a clear understanding of the
reading process)
– Then a miscue analysis of oral reading
– Then Reading Style analysis
Selecting a reading Passage
• When selecting what to use as a
reading passage, it is important that this
should be of the correct level.
• The interview should have revealed
what the learner reads to assess current
level.
• The passage should be:
– Unfamiliar to the student
– It should also be sufficiently difficult to
reveal any coping strategies the learner
may have already developed, but not so
difficult that the learner simply has no base
of reference to comprehend the text
• (i.e how does the learner cope with unknown
words)
Miscue Analysis
• Developed by Kenneth Goodman, and based
on psycholinguistic theory.
• It is focused on capturing how well a learner
processes visual material to apply meaning
(comprehension)
• It can help identify patterns of behaviour
when reading, i.e. repeated displacement of
words, or predictive problems (knight and
knife confused due the similar shape of the
words in text).
Reading Style Analysis
• Aimed at providing a holistic view of the
learners reading abilities.
• Usually contains:
– Overall Style
• How does the learner read? (both to
themselves and out loud)
– Hesitation
• This reveals where the learners problems lie, in
the processing of text.
– Repetitions
• Frequent repetitions can indicate a problem with
processing comprehension (stalling for time whilst the
brain catches up, erm erm erm)
– Visual-motor Tracking
• How easily does the learner loose their place in text?
• Missing out lines on jumping from one to another
– Corrections
• Does the learner correct miscues – how often?
• Do they overcompensate?
– Cueing Systems
• What kind of cueing systems does the learner
use for unfamiliar words? There are three major
systems for this.
– Grapho/phonic cue – what does the whole word look
like? What does the word sound like?
– Semantic Cues – using meaning to predict or
decipher text
– Syntactic Cues – understanding grammatical clues to
predict text.
• Comprehension
– Retelling
• Is the learner able to assimilate the meaning of
the given text?
• Are they able to draw conclusion?
• Is the learner able to relate the piece to given
tasks or situations?
– Language and Vocabulary
• Are there expression difficulties present?
• Retrieval issues?
• Confused vocabulary
• Does the learner know words they may not
recognise in print?
Spelling Error Analysis
• One of the common factors dyslexic learners
have difficulties with, is spelling. Even though
many adults may have developed coping
strategies for reading, substantial spelling
difficulties can often remain.
• Spelling Error Analysis allows us to Identify
the learners strengths and weaknesses.
Classifying Errors
• Logical phonetic alternatives
– Sor instead of saw, nite instead of knight
• Visual Sequence errors
– Letters sawped round
• Rule base errors
– ys instead of ies, lack of understanding of some of
the basic rules
• Sounds missing, misheard or missequenced.
– Kow instead of know, volienec instead of violence
• Motor Errors
– Handwriting errors
– Not knowing when to stop: e.g.
banananana instead of banana
– Very untidy handwriting.
Writing Analysis
• Analysis of a piece of free-writing is
another good indicator of any
difficulties.
• The learner would usually bring this
section of writing to the diagnostic
interview, and first drafts are usually the
best source for this analysis.
• Handwriting
– Is the wring joined up?
– How does the leaner hold the pen?
– How are the letters constructed?
– Irregular spacing and sizing?
• Punctuation
– Is it present?
– Is it correctly utilised?
• Syntax
– Correct use of tense
– Can sentences be restructured?
– Is sentence structure coherent or
confused?
• Vocabulary
– Are meanings of words confused
– Words formed incorrectly?
• Language Problems
– Is there a lot of repetition of words and phrases?
– Ideas there but not clearly expressed
– Is simplified language used to convey complex
situations and ideas?
• Organisation
– Are there sequence problems or illogical
structure?
– Can the learner follow a plan?
– Can the learner structure the work so that it is
categorised and uses sub headings etc.
• General
– Does the learner uses drafts?
– Is paragraphing used and used correctly
– Does the / is the learner able to learner
proofread?
– Can the learner apply formal conventions
to work – i.e. essay structure
How can we assist?

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