ET ZC234 Manufacturing Processes

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Pilani Campus
Fracture Types in Tension

Figure 2.20 Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (a) brittle
fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals – see
also Fig 1.6a; (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals; (d)
complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area.
Ductile Fracture in Low-carbon Steel

Figure 2.21 Surface of

ductile fracture in low-
carbon steel, showing
dimples. Fracture
usually is initiated at
impurities, inclusions,
or preexisting voids
(microporosity) in the
metal. Source:
Courtesy of K. H.
Habig and D. Klaffke
Progression of a Fracture

Figure 2.22 Sequence of events in the necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen:
(a) early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c)
voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section begins to
fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top
fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.
 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
The crystal structure of metals- when metals solidify from a molten state, the atoms
arrange themselves into various orderly configurations called CRYSTALS.
The arrangement of atoms in crystal is called crystalline structure.
The smallest group of atom showing characteristics of particular metal is called unit
cell.
Three basic patterns of atomic arrangements are
1.Body-centered cubic (BCC) least dense
2.Face-centered cubic (FCC) more dense
3.Hexagonal close-packet (HCP) most dense
FIGURE 1.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit
cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells.
FIGURE 1.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit
cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells.
FIGURE 1.4 The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b)
single crystal with many unit cells.
• The reason that metals form different crystal
structures is to minimize the energy required to fill
space

• At different temperatures the same metal may form

different structures

• Example for iron

• BCC –below 1185k and above 1667k
• FCC – in between
 Types of Solids
Crystalline material: periodic array
Single crystal:
periodic array over the entire extent of the
material
Polycrystalline material: many small crystals or grains

Amorphous: lacks a systematic atomic arrangement

Crystalline Amorphous

SiO2 10
 Metallic Crystal Structures

 Metals usually polycrystalline

amorphous metal possible by rapid
cooling

 Bonding in metals non-directional 

large number of nearest neighbors and dense
atomic packing

 Atom (hard sphere) radius, R:

defined by ion core radius: ~0.1 - 0.2 nm

 Most common unit cells

Faced-centered cubic (FCC)
Body-centered cubic (BCC)
Hexagonal close-packed (HCP).

11
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure
(I)
 Atoms located at corners and on centers of faces
 Cu, Al, Ag, Au have this crystal structure

Two
representations of
the FCC unit cell

12
 Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (II)

a
 Hard spheres touch along diagonal
 the cube edge length, a= 2R2

 The coordination number, CN = number of closest

neighbors = number of touching atoms, CN = 12

 Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 4.

FCC unit cell:
6 face atoms shared by two cells: 6 x 1/2 = 3
8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8 x 1/8 = 1

 Atomic packing factor, APF

= fraction of volume occupied by hard spheres
= (Sum of atomic volumes)/(Volume of cell)
= 0.74 (maximum possible)
13
 Atomic Packing Fraction

APF= Volume of Atoms/ Volume of Cell

Volume of Atoms = n (4 /3) R3

Volume of Cell = a3

14
 Density Computations

 = mass/volume
= (atoms in the unit cell, n ) x
(mass of an atom, M) /
(the volume of the cell, Vc)

Atoms in the unit cell, n = 4 (FCC)

Mass of an atom, M = A/NA

A = Atomic weight (amu or g/mol)
Avogadro number NA = 6.023  1023 atoms/mol

The volume of the cell, Vc = a3 (FCC)

a = 2R2 (FCC)
R = atomic radius
nA

Vc N A
15
 Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (II)

a
 Hard spheres touch along cube diagonal 
cube edge length, a= 4R/3
 The coordination number, CN = 8
 Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 2
Center atom not shared: 1 x 1 = 1
8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8 x 1/8 = 1
 Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.68
 Corner and center atoms are equivalent

16
Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure (I)

 Six atoms form regular hexagon surrounding one

atom in center
 Another plane is situated halfway up unit cell
(c-axis) with 3 additional atoms situated at
interstices of hexagonal (close-packed) planes
 Cd, Mg, Zn, Ti have this crystal structure

17
 Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
(II)
 Unit cell has two lattice parameters a and c.
Ideal ratio c/a = 1.633
 The coordination number, CN = 12 (same as in FCC)
 Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 6.
3 mid-plane atoms not shared: 3 x 1 = 3
12 hexagonal corner atoms shared by 6 cells:
12 x 1/6 =
2
2 top/bottom plane center atoms shared by 2 cells:
2 x 1/2 = 1

 Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.74 (same as in FCC)

18
 Density Computations Summarized
Density of a crystalline material,
 = density of the unit cell
= (atoms in the unit cell, n )  (mass of an atom, M) /
(the volume of the cell, Vc)

Atoms in unit cell, n = 2 (BCC); 4 (FCC); 6 (HCP)

Mass of atom, M = Atomic weight, A, in amu (or

g/mol). Translate mass from amu to grams divide
atomic weight in amu by Avogadro number
NA = 6.023  1023 atoms/mol

Volume of the cell, Vc = a3 (FCC and BCC)

a = 2R2 (FCC); a = 4R/3 (BCC)
where R is the atomic radius

nA

Vc N A
Atomic weight and atomic radius of elements are in the
table in textbook front cover.
19
 Polymorphism and Allotropy
Some materials can exist in more than one crystal
structure, Called polymorphism.
If material is an elemental solid: called allotropy.
Ex: of allotropy is carbon:
can exist as diamond, graphite, amorphous carbon.

Pure, solid carbon occurs in three crystalline forms –

diamond, graphite; and large, hollow fullerenes. Two kinds
of fullerenes are shown here: buckminsterfullerene
(buckyball) and carbon nanotube.
20
Single Crystals and Polycrystalline Materials

Single crystal: periodic array over entire material

Polycrystalline material: many small crystals (grains)
with varying orientations.

Atomic mismatch where grains meet (grain

boundaries)

Grain Boundary

21
 Polycrystalline Materials

Atomistic model of a nanocrystalline solid

22
 Anisotropy

Different directions in a crystal have different packing.

For instance: atoms along the edge of FCC unit
cell are more separated than along the face
diagonal.
Causes anisotropy in crystal properties
Deformation depends on direction of applied stress

If grain orientations are random  bulk properties are

isotropic

Some polycrystalline materials have grains with

preferred orientations (texture): material exhibits
anisotropic properties

23
FIGURE 1.7 Schematic illustration of types of defects in a single-crystal lattice:
selfinterstitial, vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional.
Dislocations-defects in the orderly
arrangement of a metal’s atomic structure.
Because a slip plane containing a
dislocation requires less shear stress to
allow slip than does a plane in a perfect
lattice, dislocations are the most significant
defects that explain the discrepancy
between the actual and theoretical strengths
of metals.
FIGURE 1.8 Types of dislocations in a single crystal: (a) edge dislocation; and (b) screw dislocation.
• Dislocations can become entangled and interfere
with each other and be impeded by barriers such as
grain boundaries, impurities, and inclusions in the
material. The increased shear stress required to
overcome entanglements and impediments results in
an increase in overall strength and hardness of
the metal and is known as work hardening or strain
hardening. (Ex. Cold rolling, forging, drawing)

Work Hardening (Strain

Hardening)
Role of Grain Boundaries
• Grain boundaries have very important role in plastic
deformation of polycrystalline materials.
• When molten metal solidifies, crystals begin for form
independently of each other. They have random and
unrelated orientations. Each of these crystals grows into
a crystalline structure or GRAIN.
• The number and size of the grains developed in a unit
volume of the metal depends on the rate at which
NUCLEATION (the initial stage of crystal formation)
takes place

Grains and Grain Boundaries

FIGURE 1.10 Schematic illustration of the stages during the solidification of molten metal; each small
square represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal; note
that the crystallographic orientation of each site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as
solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal, showing individual grains and grain boundaries; note
the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other.
• Rapid cooling – smaller grains
• Slow cooling – larger grains
• Grain boundaries – the surfaces that separate
individual grains
• Grain size- at room temperature a large grain size is
generally associated with low strength, low hardness,
and low ductility (ductility is a solid material's
ability to deform under tensile stress)
• Grain size is measured by counting the number of
grains in a given area or by counting the number of
grains that intersect a length of line randomly drawn
on an enlarged photograph of the grains
TABLE 1.1 Grain Sizes
• One example of a material property that is dependent on
grain size is the strength of a material; as grain size is
increased the material becomes weaker (see Fig.16.8).
Note that
– strength is expressed in units of stress (MN/m2)
– grain size of a material can be altered (increased) by annealing

• Hardness measurement (e.g., by vickers indenter) can

provide a measure of the strength of the material.
Figure 16.8 The dependence of strength on grain size for a
number of metals and alloys.
Grain Size Measurements

Grain structure is usually specified by giving the average

diameter. Grain size can be measured by two methods.
(a) Lineal Intercept Technique: This is very easy and may
be the preferred method for measuring grain size.
(b) ASTM Procedure: This method of measuring grain size
is common in engineering applications.
 Lineal Intercept Technique

In this technique, lines are drawn in the photomicrograph,

and the number of grain-boundary intercepts, Nl, along a
line is counted.
• The mean lineal intercept is then given as:
 L
l  10-1
Nl M

where L is the length of the line and M is the magnification

in the photomicrograph of the material.
Figure 16.9. Micrographs showing polycrystalline TiC
• In Figure 16.9 a line is drawn for purposes of illustration.
• The length of the line is 10 cm. The number of intersections,
Nl, is equal to 7, and the
magnification M = 1,300. Thus,

 100 X 103
l   11m
7 X 1300

• Several lines should be drawn to obtain a statistically

significant result.
 ASTM Procedure

• With the ASTM method, the grain size is specified by the

number n in the expression N = 2 n-1, where N is the number
of grains per square inch (in an area of 1 in2), when the
sample is examined at 100 power micrograph.

Example
In a grain size measurement of an aluminum sample, it was
found that there were 56 full grains in the area, and 48 grains
were cut by the circumference of the circle of area 1 in2.
Calculate ASTM grain size number n for this sample.
Solution
The grains cut by the circumference of the circle are taken as
one-half the number. Therefore,

N  56  48
2
 56  24  80  2n 1

But n   ln N   1
 ln 2 

 n   ln 80   1
 ln 2 
 4.38 0.69
  1  7.35
• Cold working – a polycrystalline metal with uniform
equiaxed grains is subject to plastic deformation at room
temperature.
• The grains become deformed and elongated.
• The deformed metal exhibits higher strength because of the
entanglement of dislocations with grain boundaries and with
each other.
• The higher the deformation, the stronger the metal becomes.
• Strength is higher for metals with small grains because they
have larger grain-boundary surface area per unit volume of
metal hence more entanglements of dislocations

Plastic deformation of
polycrystalline metals
FIGURE1.11 Plasticdeformationofidealized(equiaxed) grainsinaspecimensubjected tocompression (suchasoccurs intheforgingorrollingofmetals):(a)before
deformation;and(b)afterdeformation.Notethealignmentofgrainboundaries alongahorizontaldirection;thiseffectisknownaspreferredorientation.
•Metal properties are different in
the vertical direction from those
in the horizontal direction
•It influences both mechanical
and physical properties of
metals

ANISOTROPY
(texture)
Recovery- stresses in the highly deformed
regions of the metal piece are relieved.
Subgrain boundaries begin to form
 Recrystallization
 New equiaxed and strain-free grains are formed
replacing the older grains. Between .3Tm and .5Tm
where Tm is melting point of the metal on the
absolute scale. Recrystallization temperature is
defined as the temperature at which complete
recrystallization occurs in approximately one hour.
o Decrease density of dislocations
o Lowers strength
o Raises ductility
 Grain growth
• temperature of metal increases
further, the grain size grows
and the size may exceed the
We grow lots of grain in Indiana,
original
but this is not
grain growth
what is meant grain
by size
FIGURE1.13 Schematicillustrationoftheeffectsofrecovery, recrystallization, andgraingrowthonmechanicalpropertiesandontheshape andsizeofgrains.Notethe
formationofsmallnewgrainsduringrecrystallization.Source: After G.Sachs.
TABLE 1.2 Homologous Temperature Ranges forVarious Processes
• Cold working- plastic deformation at
room temperature
• Hot working – deformation occurs above
the recrystallization temperature
• Warm working is carried out at
intermediate temperatures, thus it is a
compromise between cold working and
hot working

Note: Deforming lead at room temperature is hot working

since the recrystallization temperature of lead is about
room temperature
Casting

 Introduction

 Advantages

 Limitations

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Casting

 Pattern

 Pattern allowances

1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance

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Shrinkage allowance

 Types of shrinkage
 Shrinkage allowance for common metals
 Calculation of solid shrinkage
 Simple problem

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Pattern Materials

 Wood

 Metals

 Plastics

 Wax

 Mercury

 Simple problem
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Types of Patterns

 Solid or Single piece pattern

 Split piece pattern

 Loose piece pattern

 Match plate pattern

 Cope and Drag pattern

 Sweep pattern

 Follow board Pattern

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Types of Patterns

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Types of Patterns

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Types of Patterns

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Core

Core

Chapplet

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Moulding sand

Silica 70-85%
Clay 10 -20%
Water 2-8%
Additives 1-6%

Silica (1710 C) ; Olivine (1800); Zirconium (2700);

Ceramic (3500); Graphite (4200)

Bentonite, kalonite

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Additives

 Cereals

 Molasis

 Silica flour

 Wood flour and saw dust

 Coal dust

 Graphite powder
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Properties of moulding sand

 Refractoriness

 Permeability

 Flowability

 Strength of the mould

 Mould hardness

 Adhesive property

 Cohesive property

 Collapsibility
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
METAL CASTING PROCESSES
1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting
Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
 Introduction

• Metal-Casting Processes
– First casting were made during 4000 – 3000 BC
– In time many casting processes have been
developed
– Many parts can be made from castings
• Engine blocks
• Cameras
• Gun barrels
• Cook ware
• Etc
 Types of Molds
• Expandable molds – mixed with various types of binders or bonding agents
– Sand
– Plaster
– Ceramics
• Note: these molds are able to withstand high temperatures and mold is broken up to
remove the casting
Permanent molds - Made of metal
• Subjected to a higher cooling rate
• Affects grain size
– Used repeatedly
– Casting can be removed easily
• Composite molds - Made of two or more materials
• Sand
• Graphite
• Metal
– Combines advantages of each material
– Used to: Control cooling rates
• Improve mold strength
• Optimize economics of the process
Two Categories of Casting
Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time
to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is
made of metal and can be used to make
many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open
mold
Overview of Sand Casting
• Most widely used casting process, accounting for a
significant majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and
titanium
• Castings range in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions

Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over

680 kg (1500 lb) for an air compressor frame
(photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).
Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand
mold is formed by
packing sand around
a pattern, then
separating the mold
into two halves and
removing the pattern
• The mold must also
contain gating and
riser system
• If casting is to have
Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
– Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties

Figure is from
www.themetalcasting.com
The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for
shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy
to work, but it warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts
much longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and
metal
Top center is the clay original, then the two part
plaster mold used for casting the lead at above, and
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, wax cast from mold, sprued for better brass casting,
Inc. M P Groover, not yet cast. 2008-01-12.
Fundamentals of Modern homepages.waymark.net/mikefirth/tapper6881b.jpg
Types of Patterns
Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold
cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity
during pouring, called chaplets

Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b)
©2007 John Wiley & Sons,
possible chaplet
Inc. M P Groover, design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
Fundamentals of Modern
Desirable Mold Properties
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist
erosion
• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to
pass through voids in sand
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on
contact with molten metal
• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the
casting
• Reusability - can sand from broken mold
 Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
• Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high temperatures
• Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
• Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape
during pouring
• Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking,
compared to round grains
– Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
Binders
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
©2007 John
Additives
Wiley & Sons,are sometimes combined with the mixture to
Inc. M P Groover,
increase
Fundamentals strength and/or permeability
of Modern
Types of Sand Mold
• Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay,
and water;
– “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
• Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather
than clay
– And mold is baked to improve strength
• Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity
surface of a green-sand mold to a depth of
10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating
Thank You