Punctuation

PUNCTUATION
PUNCTUATION
In journalistic punctuation style, you punctuate according to what you feel are
the needs for clarity. But this is likely to be viewed differently by different
people. Therefore, punctuation style in technical writing is based on the
structure of the sentence.
PUNCTUATION
Use of Comma ,
PUNCTUATION
Use of Comma ,
Use of Colons :
PUNCTUATION
Use of Comma ,
Use of Colons :
Use of Semicolons ;
PUNCTUATION
Use of Comma ,
Use of Colons :
Use of Semicolons ;
Use of Apostrophes ‘
PUNCTUATION
Use of Comma ,
Use of Colons :
Use of Semicolons ;
Use of Hyphens –
PUNCTUATION
Use of Comma ,
Use of Colons :
Use of Semicolons ;
Use of Hyphens –
Use of Comma Splices and Run-ons: The comma-splice and run-on
sentence are all examples of the problem in which two or more sentences are
improperly joined.
PUNCTUATION
Use of Comma ,
Use of Colons :
Use of Colons ;
Use of Hyphens –
Use of Comma Splices and Run-ons: The comma-splice and run-on
sentence are all examples of the problem in which two or more sentences are
improperly joined.
Fragments: Fragments are simply incomplete sentences—grammatically

Modifiers: A word, phrase, or clause--that adds information to a
noun or pronoun in a sentence.
Parallelism: Parallelism refers to the way that items in a series are
worded
worded
Subject-Verb Agreement: singular subject is matched with a

plural verb, or vice versa.
worded

Pronoun Reference: He, They, which

worded

Pronoun Case: Who, Whom

worded


Capitalization
worded


Capitalization
Numbers vs. Words
worded


Capitalization
Numbers vs. Words
Symbols and Abbreviations
worded


Capitalization
Numbers vs. Words
Symbols and Abbreviations
Homonyms (accept, except)

USE OF COMMA
Use comma after all introductory elements.
Any element, regardless of the length, coming before the main clause should be
punctuated with a comma. (The main clause is that core part of a sentence that
makes it a complete sentence; that is, it expresses a complete thought.)
USE OF COMMA
When an atom acquires enough energy to leave its orbit, the atom is
positively charged.
USE OF COMMA
positively charged.
As for the energy required to produce plastic automobile parts, the auto
makers view the additional cost as justified by the savings in petroleum by a
lighter car during its lifetime.
USE OF COMMA
positively charged.
Because the high-pressure turbo pumps rotate at speeds of 30,000 rpm, the
weight distribution on the turbine blades must be balanced with great accuracy.
USE OF COMMA
positively charged.
Because the high-pressure turbo pumps rotate at speeds of 30,000 rpm, the
weight distribution on the turbine blades must be balanced with great accuracy.
Because there is no belt of doldrums in the Atlantic south of the equator,

hurricanes do not usually occur there.
Punctuate even short introductory phrases
Using this concept, Faraday arrived at a relation between the changing flux and
the induced electromagnetic
Double check commas between the parts of a sentence
A single comma should never break the flow of the main subject, verb, and object
or complement of a sentence. Instead, commas should occur in pairs. (the
bracketed commas indicated where commas are typically but mistakenly placed):
Double check commas between the parts of a sentence.
The discovery that moving a magnet within a coil could produce current [,] was
a major breakthrough in the history of electronics.
(Yes, it's a long way from the subject "discovery" to the verb "was" but there should be
no comma.)
no comma.)
Decreasing the radar operating frequency [,] increases the effective velocity
coverage for the same sampling rate.
"Decreasing the radar operating frequency" is the subject of the verb "increases.")

no comma.)
Decreasing the radar operating frequency [,] increases the effective velocity
coverage for the same sampling rate.
"Decreasing the radar operating frequency" is the subject of the verb "increases.")
 It can be assumed that [,] precipitation particles move with the air in their
environment and are therefore good tracers for air motion.
(does it feel like a pause?)
Use a comma between all independent clauses
Use a comma between all independent clauses.
Whenever you have a compound sentence (those are the ones joined by and, but,
or, nor, for, whereas), put a comma before the conjunction (the words I just listed
in italics). Length of the compound sentence does not matter. (conjunctions are
italicized):
italicized):
The tank is made of aluminum, but the outer surface is protected by a spray-on
foam.
italicized):
foam.
By the mid-1970s, the free-spending ways of the Apollo Program were gone, and
NASA now had to grapple with large technical challenges on a limited budget.
italicized):
foam.
Type your name, and then press the Enter key.
(This is an imperative sentences—this qualifies as a compound sentence.

italicized):
foam.
Type your name, and then press the Enter key.
(This is an imperative sentence—this qualifies as a compound sentence.
You should type your name and then press the Enter key.
(In this case "you" is the subject for the compound verb—it's the subject for both "should
type" and "press." This is not a compound sentence, and therefore there is no comma
before "and.")
Do not use a comma between two compound verb phrase
Do not use a comma between two compound verb phrase.
Watch out about what you think are compound sentences. A complete sentence
has to be on both sides of the conjunction (that means subject, verb, object, or
complement—the works). (subjects are italicized, and verbs are bold):
Offspring exposed to significant amounts of alcohol before birth are much more
active than controls and sometimes seem to fly around the room.
compound verb phrase, not a compound sentence: "Offspring" is subject for both verbs.
Plastic parts are not weldable and must be repaired by other methods.
The observation and measurement of such small frequency shifts require

excellent radar frequency-stability characteristics that are not usually found in
conventional radar but can be added without a drastic increase in equipment
costs.

costs.
Long and needy of commas at and and but. Rather than break our rule why not split
these into two sentences each?

costs.
Long and needy of commas at and and but. Rather than break our rule why not split
these into two sentences each?

conventional radar. However, this same observation and measurement can be
added without a drastic increase in equipment costs.
The manganese dioxide used in batteries is usually obtained from natural ore
(mainly from Gabon, Greece, and Mexico) but can be a synthetic product
prepared by chemical precipitation or by electrolytic methods.
(mainly from Gabon, Greece, and Mexico). It can also be a synthetic product
Use commas around all nonrestrictive elements.

Nonrestrictive elements are phrases and clauses that a sentence literally does
not need to say what it wants to say. These elements can be taken out of the
sentence without hurting its basic message. Use commas around these
nonrestrictive elements.

Eighty percent of the work done by the heart is carried out by the left ventricle,
which pumps blood into the arteries serving the organs and the tissues.
(The writer reminds us what the left ventricle does, but the sentence could live without
it; it would still make sense.)

Eighty percent of the work done by the heart is carried out by the left ventricle,
which pumps blood into the arteries serving the organs and the tissues.
(The writer reminds us what the left ventricle does, but the sentence could live without
it; it would still make sense.)
Eighty percent of the work done by the heart is carried out by the left ventricle
The test produced a speed in the high-pressure hydrogen turbopump of 7000
rpm, which is 19 percent of design speed.
(This is additional detail, not essential to the sense of the sentence.)
The Coriolis force, caused by the rotation of the earth, always acts at right
angles to the pressure gradient in the northern hemisphere.
The Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the pressure gradient in the
northern hemisphere
(This is a helpful definition but again is not essential to the sentence.)
northern hemisphere
The formation of hurricane, a type of atmospheric vortex, involves the

combined effect of pressure and circular wind.
northern hemisphere

Researchers also found that heavy drinkers — women drinking at least 1.6
ounces of absolute alcohol during pregnancy — have infants averaging 59
grams less than the infants of lighter drinkers.
northern hemisphere

Researchers also found that heavy drinkers have infants averaging 59 grams
less than the infants of lighter drinkers.
northern hemisphere

Researchers also found that heavy drinkers have infants averaging 59 grams
less than the infants of lighter drinkers.
When added to liquids, detergent materials decrease the contact angle,
thereby decreasing the wettability. (Nonessential stuff—put commas around it!)
Do not use comma around restrictive elements.
Restrictive elements are phrases and clauses that a sentence desperately

needs to make sense, to say what it means to say. If you take restrictive
elements out of a sentence, you will ruined the sentence!

Problem: You can use the system, when the login prompt appears.
The way this sentence is punctuated implies that you can use the system any old time!
The comma indicates that the clause beginning with "when" can be omitted.

Revision: You can use the system when the login prompt appears.
(The clause beginning with "when" is restrictive— it can't be omitted from the sentence
and therefore should not be punctuated. Now the sentence means that you can use the
system only when the prompt appears.)

A turbopump is essentially a pump that is turned by the action of a turbine that

shares a common shaft with the pump.
(It's not any old pump; it's one that does what the latter part of this sentence says it
does. Imagine this sentence ending at "essentially a pump.")

A turbopump is essentially a pump that is turned by the action of a turbine that

shares a common shaft with the pump.
(It's not any old pump; it's one that does what the latter part of this sentence says it
does. Imagine this sentence ending at "essentially a pump.")
Eighty percent of the work done by the heart is carried out by the left ventricle.
(Imagine this sentence without "done by the heart," which is the restrictive element in
this sentence. No commas here!)
Use a comma before the "and" in a series of three or more.
In series of three or more words or phrases, go ahead and put the comma
before the and that occurs before the final element. You may have heard that
this series-and comma rule is optional. However, there are situations where the
lack of the series-and comma can cause confusion. And when you consider
that using the series-and comma cannot hurt the sense of the sentence, it
makes sense to use it in all cases.
Instrument panels, bumper components, door liners, seat covers, and grille
panels are the most common parts produced directly by automakers.
 A 12-ounce can of beer, a 5-ounce glass of wine, and a mixed drink with 1.5
ounces of 80-proof liquor all contain approximately the same amount of alcohol.
 A 12-ounce can of beer, a 5-ounce glass of wine, and a mixed drink with 1.5
ounces of 80-proof liquor all contain approximately the same amount of alcohol.
The development years involved designing the components for the Space
Shuttle's engines, testing the original designs, and retesting the redesigned
components.
Do not use a comma between a series of only two.
Be careful not to apply the series-and comma rule to a series of only two
elements. Watch out also for those situations where it looks like you have a
series of three elements but it is actually a series of two noun phrases and a
compound verb phrase (if this is meaningless—see the example).
Be careful not to apply the series-and comma rule to a series of only two
elements. Watch out also for those situations where it looks like you have a
series of three elements but it is actually a series of two noun phrases and a
compound verb phrase (if this is meaningless—see the example).
We brought bread and cheese and read poetry.

(Notice that "bread," "cheese," and "poetry" are not really in a series. No commas for
either "and" here.)
Punctuate series adjectives carefully.
It gets tricky knowing how to punctuate when two or more adjectives pile up in
front of a noun. One fairly reliable technique is this: if you can switch the order
of the adjectives or if you can insert and between them without making the
phrase sound weird, then you should use commas. (Remember that in no case
is there a comma between the final series adjective and the noun it modifies.)
He's having his third mid-life crisis. Now he wants a new red sports car.
(You couldn't say "mid-life third crisis" nor could you say "sports red new car"—so no
commas in or amongst these adjectives.)
He's having his third mid-life crisis. Now he wants a new red sports car.
(You couldn't say "mid-life third crisis" nor could you say "sports red new car"—so no
commas in or amongst these adjectives.)
Each door is held shut with an adjustable, spring-loaded door latch.

(You probably could switch "adjustable" and "spring-loaded"—use a comma here.)
PUNCTUATION
PUNCTUATION
Use of Colons:
PUNCTUATION
Use of Colons:
Although the colon has other uses in writing, its most important function is to act
as a signal to the reader-it says something like "Okay, reader! Here it comes!" For
example:
PUNCTUATION
Use of Colons:
example:
To make a kite, you need the following items: string, paper, thin sticks, glue, and
scissors.
PUNCTUATION
Use of Colons:
example:
scissors.
Notice the words before the colon make a complete statement-at least grammatically.
Here are some additional examples:
PUNCTUATION
Use of Colons:
example:
scissors.
The main engines of the Space Shuttle consist of six main components: the external
tank, the low-pressure turbo pump, the high-pressure turbo pumps, the preburners, the
combustion chamber, and the nozzle.
PUNCTUATION
Use of Colons:
example:
scissors.
The main engines of the Space Shuttle consist of six main components: the external
tank, the low-pressure turbo pump, the high-pressure turbo pumps, the preburners, the
combustion chamber, and the nozzle.
To make a metal dashboard, three steps are required: (1) the metal must be stamped;
(2) the texture must be stamped into the metal; and (3) the part must be painted.
Notice in the last example that the first sentence introduces a series of complete
sentences. In fact, you can use the colon to connect two complete sentences-as long as
the first sentence introduces or prepares for the second. Here are some examples of this
possibility:
possibility:
The grades of the students in the caffeine research project told a dramatic story: the
higher the caffeine intake, the lower the grades, both for semester and overall grade
point average.
possibility:
point average.
In general, shelf-life increases as the cell size of the battery becomes smaller: with well-
constructed cells, shelf-lives of three years with a No. 6 telephone cell and ten years with
a penlight cell are possible.
possibility:
point average.
However, don't use a colon inside a complete sentence. It should connect only
complete sentences to complete sentences or complete sentences to lists.
possibility:
point average.
Problem: The typical Doppler velocity sensor consists of: a transistor, an antenna, and a
receiver.
possibility:
point average.
Problem: The typical Doppler velocity sensor consists of: a transistor, an antenna, and a
receiver.
Revision: The typical Doppler velocity sensor consists of a transistor, an antenna, and a
Problem: You will need the following items: string, paper, thin sticks, glue, and scissors,
to make a kite.
to make a kite.
Revision: You will need the following items - string, paper, thin sticks, glue, and scissors
- to make a kite.
to make a kite.
Revision: You will need the following items - string, paper, thin sticks, glue, and scissors
- to make a kite.
Look at this last example closely: the grammatical core of the sentence is "You will need
the following items to make a kite." And don't forget the important role of the colon in
introducing a vertical list. A colon should punctuate the lead-in that sets up the list items.
Use of Semicolons
Use of Semicolons
The semicolon could be called a strong comma. Its two main uses are to connect
two (or more) sentences that seem very closely related and to clarify the
punctuation of a series of items that have their own internal commas.
Use of Semicolons
"Plaque-fissuring" refers to the formation of an opening from the lumen to the intima; it
leads to an intra-intimal thrombus containing not just red cells but mainly fibrin and
platelets.
Use of Semicolons
platelets.
In 1940, philanthropy accounted for 24 per cent of the total operating budget of nonprofit
hospitals in New York City; in 1948, it had dropped to 17 per cent.
Use of Semicolons
platelets.
The other use of the semicolon worth noting here is how it can clarify items in a series
that have commas within them already:
Use of Semicolons
platelets.
The other use of the semicolon worth noting here is how it can clarify items in a series
that have commas within them already:
Injury caused by pollutants can easily be mistaken for injury caused by other stresses;
or, just the opposite, injury symptoms from adverse temperature or moisture relations
may resemble, and can be incorrectly attributed to, air pollutants.
A typical membrane potential of about one-tenth of a volt sounds relatively small; but,
because it occurs across a membrane that is only about 10 nanometers thick, it
represents an enormous voltage gradient of about 10 million volts per meter.
The heart undergoes two cardiac cycle periods: diastole, when blood enters the
ventricles; and systole, when the ventricles contract and blood is pumped out.
The heart undergoes two cardiac cycle periods: diastole, when blood enters the
ventricles; and systole, when the ventricles contract and blood is pumped out.
An organization may be functional, with responsibility assigned on the basis of buying,

selling, promotion, distribution, and other tasks; production-oriented, with production
managers for each product category and brand managers for each individual brand in
addition to functional categories; or market-oriented, with managers assigned on the
basis of geographical markets and customer types in addition to functional categories.
A common misuse of the semicolon is to plunk it down between what
appear to be two complete sentences:
Problem: The slide rule was an important device for scientists and engineers
for many years; although its use has all but vanished since the advent of the
pocket calculator.
pocket calculator.
Revision: The slide rule was an important device for scientists and engineers
for many years, although its use has all but vanished since the advent of the
pocket calculator.
pocket calculator.
Revision: The slide rule was an important device for scientists and engineers
for many years, although its use has all but vanished since the advent of the
pocket calculator.
The "although" clause is not complete; it can't stand on its own.)

Apostrophes
Apostrophes
It is used primarily to show possession and, minimally, to show

plurals. But the thing does add precision to writing; it does
prevent confusion. The rules are simple; here they are:
Apostrophes

plurals. But people have gotten it all mixed up. But the thing
does add precision to writing; it does prevent confusion. The
rules are simple; here they are:
To show possession for singular words not ending in s, add 's:

Apostrophes

• Earth's shadow
Apostrophes

• Earth's shadow
• The fish's ear

Apostrophes

• Earth's shadow
• The fish's ear
• The Moon's orbit

Apostrophes

• Earth's shadow
• The fish's ear
• The Moon's orbit
• India's population
To show possession for singular words
ending in s, add 's (usage varies on
this, but this is a safe choice):
• Mars's (or Mars') shadow

• Mars's (or Mars') shadow
• Venus's (Venus') orbit

To show possession for plural words
ending in s, add ' to the plural form of
the word (but don't add another s):
• These companies' employees

• Planets' orbits
• Planets' orbits
• These species' niches

• Planets' orbits
• These countries' population

To show possession for plural words ending in s, add '
to the plural form of the word (but don't add another
s):
• Planets' orbits
To show possession for plural words not ending in s,

add 's:
To show possession for plural words ending in s, add ' to the
plural form of the word (but don't add another s):
• Planets' orbits
To show possession for plural words not ending in s, add 's:
• Men's rights
To show possession for plural words ending in s, add ' to the
plural form of the word (but don't add another s):
• Planets' orbits
To show possession for plural words not ending in s, add 's:
• Men's rights
• Children’s education
To show the plural of numbers or letters
when they are discussed as such, add
's (again usage varies on this, but this
is a safe choice):
is a safe choice):
• Do you know how many c's and s's are in

the word necessary?
is a safe choice):
• Do you know how many c's and s's are in

the word necessary?
• On a computer, O's are represented by

O's and 0's with 0's.
To show the plural of numbers or letters when
they are discussed as such, add 's (again
usage varies on this, but this is a safe
choice):
• Do you know how many c's and s's are in the

word necessary?
• On a computer, O's are represented by O's and

0's with 0's.
To show possession for possessive pronouns,

don't use the apostrophe (don't ask me why):
To show the plural of numbers or letters when they are discussed
as such, add 's (again usage varies on this, but this is a safe
choice):
• Do you know how many c's and s's are in the word necessary?
• On a computer, O's are represented by O's and 0's with 0's.
To show possession for possessive pronouns, don't use the

apostrophe (don't ask me why):
• This book is yours.

To show the plural of numbers or letters when they are discussed
as such, add 's (again usage varies on this, but this is a safe
choice):
• Do you know how many c's and s's are in the word necessary?
• On a computer, O's are represented by O's and 0's with 0's.
To show possession for possessive pronouns, don't use the

apostrophe (don't ask me why):
• This book is yours.
• This CRT is theirs, not ours.

The rules for its and it's.
Its is the possessive form of it; it's is the contraction for it is

(exactly opposite):

(exactly opposite):
• The SGO density gauge is missing one of its adjusting knobs.

(possessive here)

(exactly opposite):
• The SGO density gauge is missing one of its adjusting knobs.

(possessive here)
• It's unfortunate that our language has so many exceptions to its

rules-or is it? (Contraction for "it is" here)
Hyphens
Hyphens
Someone once said, "Take hyphens

seriously and you will surely go mad."
They weren't lying!
Hyphens
Someone once said, "Take hyphens seriously and you

will surely go mad." They weren't lying!
Hyphens are supposed to keep us from misreading

things and show us how words in complex phrases
relate to each other. The problem is that the rules for
hyphens simply cannot be applied absolutely
consistently, you end up hyphenating everything
Hyphens
Someone once said, "Take hyphens seriously and you will surely
go mad." They weren't lying!
Hyphens are supposed to keep us from misreading things and

show us how words in complex phrases relate to each other.
The problem is that the rules for hyphens simply cannot be
applied absolutely consistently, you end up hyphenating
everything
Hyphens show that a pair of words is acting as a unit and must be

read that way. The common types of unit modifiers, which are
two or more words acting as a unit.
Although styles vary on this, do not
hyphenate the common prefixes such
as pre, anti, multi, and so on (unless it
spells some other word or just looks
hopelessly weird). However, do
hyphenate prefix words such as self-.
•
Although styles vary on this, do not hyphenate
the common prefixes such as pre, anti, multi,
and so on (unless it spells some other word
or just looks hopelessly weird). However, do
• self-lubricating hinges nonprescription drugs
•
Although styles vary on this, do not hyphenate
the common prefixes such as pre, anti, multi,
and so on (unless it spells some other word
or just looks hopelessly weird). However, do
• multistep reaction precooked foods
•
Although styles vary on this, do not hyphenate the
common prefixes such as pre, anti, multi, and so on
(unless it spells some other word or just looks
hopelessly weird). However, do hyphenate prefix
words such as self-.
• antibotulism agent mid-1970s
•
Although styles vary on this, do not hyphenate the common
prefixes such as pre, anti, multi, and so on (unless it spells
some other word or just looks hopelessly weird). However, do
• nonmalarial areas micro-universe
•
• reusable subnuclear
•
• anti-botulism agent mid-1970s
• reusable subnuclear
• re-sent anti-icing
Hyphenate a unit modifier made up of a
number followed by a unit of
measurement:
measurement:
• 5-year grant 10-month period

measurement:
• 20-megabyte memory 3.5-inch diskette

number followed by a unit of measurement:
Hyphenate an elliptical form of a longer phrase

that is acting as a unit modifier:
Hyphenate a unit modifier made up of a number
followed by a unit of measurement:
Hyphenate an elliptical form of a longer phrase that is

acting as a unit modifier:
• Below-average rainfall warm-up period

Hyphenate a unit modifier made up of a number
followed by a unit of measurement:
Hyphenate an elliptical form of a longer phrase that is

acting as a unit modifier:
• Below-average rainfall warm-up period
• Built-in scale on-board timer

Hyphenate a verb and a non-verb
element acting as a unit:
• drought-producing system
• water-repellent fabric
• coffee-flavored ice cream

• Nutrient-rich waters
Hyphenate a verb and a non-verb element
acting as a unit:
• government-sponsored programs
Hyphenate a verb and a non-verb element acting as a
unit:
• government-sponsored programs
• corrosion-resistant metal
Don't hyphenate units in which the
first word ends in -ly:
• Highly developed country

• Fully equipped computer

Don't hyphenate units in which the first word ends in
-ly:
• Fully equipped computer
Once you get a partial feel for hyphens, watch out! You might start
acting like Lucy in that show where she has been on the assembly
line too long and starts going after everything and everybody with
her wrenches. Everything will seem like it needs a hyphen! When
that happens, back off, and ask yourself-could someone misread
this sentence without a hyphen.
Comma Splices and Run-ons
The comma-splice and run-on sentence (and the fused sentence, as a

variant is called) are all examples of the problem in which two or
more sentences are improperly joined. In the typical comma-splice
sentence, two sentences are joined by a comma without an
intervening coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet).
Technically, the run-on sentence is a sentence that goes on and on
and needs to be broken up; it's likely to be a comma splice as well.
A fused sentence is two complete sentence just jammed together
without any punctuation and without any conjunction.
The comma-splice and run-on sentence (and the fused sentence, as a variant
is called) are all examples of the problem in which two or more sentences
are improperly joined. In the typical comma-splice sentence, two sentences
are joined by a comma without an intervening coordinating conjunction (and,
or, nor, but, yet). Technically, the run-on sentence is a sentence that goes
on and on and needs to be broken up; it's likely to be a comma splice as
well. A fused sentence is two complete sentence just jammed together
without any punctuation and without any conjunction.
We write comma-splice and run-on sentences because we sense that the

sentences involved are closely related - a full-stop period just doesn't seem
right. Actually, the semicolon is the right choice in these situations (although
it's easy to go semicolon crazy when you first start using them). Here are
some examples of this type of problem and their revisions:
Problem: Sometimes, books do not have the most complete information, it is
a good idea then to look for articles in specialized periodicals.
Revision: Sometimes, books do not have the most complete information; it is


Problem: Most of the hours I've earned toward my associate's degree do not
transfer, however, I do have at least some hours the University will accept.

Revision: Most of the hours I've earned toward my associate's degree do not
transfer. However, I do have at least some hours the University will accept.

Problem: The opposite is true of stronger types of stainless steel, they tend to
be more susceptible to rust.

Problem: The opposite is true of stronger types of stainless steel, they tend to
Revision: The opposite is true of stronger types of stainless steel: they tend to
Fragments
Fragments
Fragments are simply incomplete sentences, grammatically incomplete.

They usually come about because the sentence may already seem too
long. Also, in conversation, we typically speak in fragments. Here are
some examples and their revisions:
Fragments
Fragments are simply incomplete sentences-grammatically incomplete.

Problem: Mary appeared at the committee meeting last week. And made a
convincing presentation of her ideas about the new product.
Fragments

Revision: Mary appeared at the committee meeting last week and made a
Fragments

Problem: The committee considered her ideas for a new marketing strategy
quite powerful. The best ideas that they had heard in years.
Fragments

Problem: The committee considered her ideas for a new marketing strategy
quite powerful. The best ideas that they had heard in years.
Revision: The committee considered her ideas for a new marketing strategy
quite powerful, the best ideas that they had heard in years.
Problem: The corporation wants to begin a new marketing push in
educational software. Although the more conservative executives of the firm
are skeptical.
Problem: The corporation wants to begin a new marketing push in
educational software. Although the more conservative executives of the firm
are skeptical.
Revision: Although the more conservative executives of the firm are skeptical,
the corporation wants to begin a new marketing push in educational software.
Problem Modifiers
Problem Modifiers
Modifier problems occur when the word or phrase that a modifier is supposed to
modify is unclear or absent, or when the modifier is located in the wrong place
within the sentence. A modifier is any element - a word, phrase, or clause- that
adds information to a noun or pronoun in a sentence. Modifier problems are
usually divided into two groups: misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers:
Problem Modifiers
within the sentence. A modifier is any element-a word, phrase, or clause--that
Misplaced modifiers
Problem Modifiers
Misplaced modifiers
To correct misplaced modifier problems, you can usually relocate the misplaced
modifier (the word or phrase).
Problem Modifiers
Misplaced modifiers
Problem: They found out that the walkways had collapsed on the late evening news.
(Was that before or after the sports news?)
Problem Modifiers
Misplaced modifiers
Problem: They found out that the walkways had collapsed on the late evening news.
(Was that before or after the sports news?)
Revisions: On the late evening news, we heard that the walkways had collapsed.
Problem: The committee nearly spent a hundred hours investigating the accident. (Did
they spend even a minute?)
Revision: The committee spent nearly a hundred hours investigating the accident.
Dangling modifiers
Dangling modifiers
To correct dangling modifiers, you can rephrase the dangling modifier, or

rephrase the rest of the sentence that it modifies.
Dangling modifiers

Having damaged the previous one, a new fuse was installed in the car.
Dangling modifiers

(Who damaged that fuse?)

Dangling modifiers

(Who damaged that fuse?)
Revision: Because the previous fuse had been damaged, a new one had to be installed.
or Having damaged the previous one, I had to install a new fuse in my car.
Using a grant from the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, a contra flow
lane was designed for I-45 North.
(Who used that money?)

lane was designed for I-45 North. (Who used that money?)
Revision: When the Urban Mass Transportation Administration granted funds

to the city, planners began designing a contra flow lane for I-45 North. or
lane was designed for I-45 North. (Who used that money?)
Revision: When the Urban Mass Transportation Administration granted funds

to the city, planners began designing a contra flow lane for I-45 North. or
Using a grant from the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, city planners
designed a contra flow lane for I-45 North.
Parallelism
Parallelism
Parallelism refers to the way that items in a series are worded. You want
to use the same style of wording in a series of items--it makes it easier on
the reader. Widely varied wording is distracting and potentially confusing
to readers. Here are some examples, with revisions and some comments:
Parallelism
Problem: The report discusses how telescopes work, what types are available,
mounts, accessories, and techniques for beginning star gazers.
Parallelism
(The "how" and the "why" clauses are not parallel to the "mounts,"
"accessories," and "techniques" phrases.)
Parallelism
(The "how" and the "why" clauses are not parallel to the "mounts,"
"accessories," and "techniques" phrases.)
Revision: The report discusses how telescopes work, what types of

telescopes, mounts, and accessories are available, and how to begin your
hobby as a star gazer.
Problem: This report is intended for people with some electronics background
but have little or no knowledge of geophysical prospecting.
but have little or no knowledge of geophysical prospecting.
(The "with" phrase is not parallel with the "have little" clause--this one is not even
grammatical.)
Revision: This report is intended for people with some electronics background
but with little or no knowledge of geophysical prospecting.
but have little or no knowledge of geophysical prospecting. (The "with" phrase
is not parallel with the "have little" clause--this one is not even grammatical.)
Revision: This report is intended for people with some electronics background
but with little or no knowledge of geophysical prospecting.
Parallelism problems have to do when same types of phrasing are not used in
the same areas of a document: such as for list items in a specific list, or for all
headings at a certain level within a specific part of a document. At times,
working on parallelism of phrasing is trivial. However, in many instances,
parallel phrasing can give readers important cues as to how to interpret
information.
Subject-Verb Agreement
With subject-verb agreement problems, either a singular subject is matched with a

plural verb, or vice versa. (Remember that some singular verbs end in -s.)
Sometimes it's hard to spot the true subject, particularly in these cases:

When several words come between the subject and verb:


The communications between the programmer and the rest of the company
tends to be rather informal.

Revisions: The communications between the programmer and the rest of the company
tend to be rather informal.

The shortage of available infants and the availability of children with special needs has
changed the focus of adoption for many parents

The shortage of available infants and the availability of children with special needs has
changed the focus of adoption for many parents
Revisions: The shortage of available infants and the availability of children with special
needs have changed the focus of adoption for many parents
When there are two or more subjects joined by and or or:
In the computer's memory is stored the program and the data to be

manipulated by that program.

Revisions: In the computer's memory are stored the program and the data to
be manipulated by that program.

Skyrocketing charges for data preparation, the need to keep pace with rapidly
increasing amounts of data, and requirements for fast system response has led
to a search for more efficient input devices.

Skyrocketing charges for data preparation, the need to keep pace with rapidly
increasing amounts of data, and requirements for fast system response has led
Revisions: Skyrocketing charges for data preparation, the need to keep pace with
rapidly increasing amounts of data, and requirements for fast system response have led
When the normal subject-verb order is inverted:


Equivalent to more than 3000 punched cards are the single diskette, first
introduced in 1972.
Equivalent to more than 3000 punched cards are the single diskette, first
introduced in 1972.
Revisions: Equivalent to more than 3000 punched cards is the single diskette,
first introduced in 1972.
When the subject is a word like each, every, none, either, neither, no one,
and nobody, especially when followed by a plural object of a preposition:
Each of the steps in the process are treated in a separate chapter of this report.
Revisions: Each of the steps in the process is treated in a separate chapter of

this report.

this report.
Neither of the two high-level languages offer a facility for designing your own
variables.

this report.
Neither of the two high-level languages offer a facility for designing your own
variables.
Revisions: Neither of the two high-level languages offers a facility for

designing your own variables.
When the subject is a phrase or clause acting as a unit:
Printing 54,000 chars. per 60 seconds were considered a high speed for
printers at one time.
Revisions: Printing 54,000 chars. per 60 seconds was considered a high

speed for printers at one time.

What is truly amazing about bits cells in integrated circuits are that 30 cells
lined up side by side are about as wide as a human hair.

What is truly amazing about bits cells in integrated circuits are that 30 cells
lined up side by side are about as wide as a human hair.
Revisions: What is truly amazing about bits cells in integrated circuits is that
30 cells lined up side by side are about as wide as a human hair.
Pronoun Reference
Pronoun Reference
A pronoun is a word like "he," "they," "him," "them," "which," "this," "everyone,"
"each," and so on. It's like a variable in programming--it points to some other
word that holds its meaning. Problems arise when you can't figure out what the
pronoun is pointing to (its "reference") and when it doesn't "agree" in number or
gender with what it is pointing to. You're reading along in some incredibly
technical thing, and it refers to something as "this." You look back up at the sea
of words you have just been laboriously reading through--you say "this what?!"
You have just experienced one form of the pronoun-reference problem.
Pronoun Reference
technical thing, and it refers to something as "this." You look back up at the sea
of words you have just been laboriously reading through--you say "this what?!"
You have just experienced one form of the pronoun-reference problem.
Problem: Lasers have also been used to study the reaction by which nitric oxide and
ozone make nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and molecular oxygen. It plays an important role in
the chemistry of the ozone layer that surrounds the earth and protects us from the sun's
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Pronoun Reference
technical thing, and it refers to something as "this."
Problem: Lasers have also been used to study the reaction by which nitric oxide and
ozone make nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and molecular oxygen. It plays an important role in
the chemistry of the ozone layer that surrounds the earth and protects us from the sun's
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
("It" what?)
Revision: Lasers have also been used to study the reaction by which nitric oxide and
ozone make nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and molecular oxygen. This process plays an
important role in the chemistry of the ozone layer that surrounds the earth and protects
us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. (Okay, now we see...)
The second kind of pronoun-reference problem arises over lack of
agreement between the pronoun and what it refers to. Here is one
common example:
common example:
Problem: Motorola has just announced their new PowerPC chip.

common example:
Revision: Motorola has just announced its new PowerPC chip.

common example:
The problem here is that "Motorola" is a singular thing, while "their" is a plural
thing--they don't agree in number! Here is a second example:
common example:
Problem: These days, every student needs to own their own computer.
common example:
The problem in this example is that "student" does not agree with "their": one is singular;
the other, plural.
common example:
the other, plural.
Revision 1: These days, students need to own their own computers.

common example:
the other, plural.
Revision 2: These days, every student needs to own his or her own computer.
common example:
the other, plural.
Revision 2: These days, every student needs to own his or her own computer.
Whenever it works, try converting the singular noun to a plural--the plural
pronoun will then be okay (but don't forget to change the verb to plural). Here are
some additional examples .
Problem: NASA hoped that, by using production tooling rather than by making each tool
individually, they could save time and money.
Revision: NASA hoped that, by using production tooling rather than by making each
tool individually, it could save time and money.
Problem: If an energy efficient system can be developed, electrical vehicles could

become as popular as its conventional counterpart.
Problem: If an energy efficient system can be developed, electrical vehicles could

become as popular as its conventional counterpart.
Revision: If an energy-efficient system can be developed, electrical vehicles could

become as popular as their conventional counterpart.

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PUNCTUATION

Fragments: Fragments are simply incomplete sentences—grammatically

Subject-Verb Agreement: singular subject is matched with a

Subject-Verb Agreement: singular subject is matched with a

Pronoun Reference: He, They, which

Subject-Verb Agreement: singular subject is matched with a

Pronoun Reference: He, They, which

Pronoun Case: Who, Whom

Subject-Verb Agreement: singular subject is matched with a

Pronoun Reference: He, They, which

Pronoun Case: Who, Whom

Subject-Verb Agreement: singular subject is matched with a

Pronoun Reference: He, They, which

Pronoun Case: Who, Whom

Subject-Verb Agreement: singular subject is matched with a

Pronoun Reference: He, They, which

Pronoun Case: Who, Whom

Subject-Verb Agreement: singular subject is matched with a

Pronoun Reference: He, They, which

Pronoun Case: Who, Whom

Homonyms (accept, except)

Because there is no belt of doldrums in the Atlantic south of the equator,

Double check commas between the parts of a sentence

Double check commas between the parts of a sentence.

Double check commas between the parts of a sentence.

Double check commas between the parts of a sentence.

Type your name, and then press the Enter key.

(This is an imperative sentences—this qualifies as a compound sentence.

Type your name, and then press the Enter key.

(This is an imperative sentence—this qualifies as a compound sentence.

The observation and measurement of such small frequency shifts require

The observation and measurement of such small frequency shifts require

The observation and measurement of such small frequency shifts require

The observation and measurement of such small frequency shifts require

Use commas around all nonrestrictive elements.

Use commas around all nonrestrictive elements.

Use commas around all nonrestrictive elements.

The formation of hurricane, a type of atmospheric vortex, involves the

The formation of hurricane, a type of atmospheric vortex, involves the

The formation of hurricane, a type of atmospheric vortex, involves the

The formation of hurricane, a type of atmospheric vortex, involves the

Restrictive elements are phrases and clauses that a sentence desperately

Restrictive elements are phrases and clauses that a sentence desperately

Restrictive elements are phrases and clauses that a sentence desperately

Restrictive elements are phrases and clauses that a sentence desperately

A turbopump is essentially a pump that is turned by the action of a turbine that

Restrictive elements are phrases and clauses that a sentence desperately

A turbopump is essentially a pump that is turned by the action of a turbine that

We brought bread and cheese and read poetry.

Each door is held shut with an adjustable, spring-loaded door latch.

An organization may be functional, with responsibility assigned on the basis of buying,

The "although" clause is not complete; it can't stand on its own.)

It is used primarily to show possession and, minimally, to show

It is used primarily to show possession and, minimally, to show

To show possession for singular words not ending in s, add 's:

It is used primarily to show possession and, minimally, to show

To show possession for singular words not ending in s, add 's:

It is used primarily to show possession and, minimally, to show

To show possession for singular words not ending in s, add 's:

• The fish's ear

It is used primarily to show possession and, minimally, to show

To show possession for singular words not ending in s, add 's:

• The fish's ear

• The Moon's orbit