COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

•CPU
•MEMORY
•I/O DEVICES
•INTERCONNECTING DEVICES
•CLOCK
• CPU: a single VLSI microprocessor chip
perform the functions of CPU.
• This chip is equivalent to many thousand
transistors.
• It is the heart of a computer system, where all
important functions of a computer is carried
out.
 Memory
• Memory is broadly classified into
• i) RAM & ii) ROM (Both are storage chips)
– RAM occupies 80% of computer system.
– The term RAM means ‘Random Access Memory; refers to
a memory device in which data may be retrieved from all
locations with equal ease.
– Basic element of a semi-conductor memory is known as
CELL.
– Cells are manufactured either with BJT or MOS.
– Bi-polar devices are much faster, still they are rarely used
because they require several voltage rails(Both +ve & -ve)
 RAM & ROM
• Enable Enable
• Read Write

• Data out Data out

Data in RAM ROM

Address lines Address line

• RAMs are further classified into:
– SRAM (Static RAM). Uses 6 transistors. It does not
require periodic refreshing.

– DRAM (Dynamic RAM). Uses a pair of transistors.

It requires periodic refreshing to retain the data
stored in it.
 ROM: READ ONLY MEMORY
• It is a memory, once programmed, can only be
read from.
• It is usually plug-in devices.
• It cannot be re-written.
• Therefore it is non-volatile. i.e. the memory is
not lost even when power is switched off.
• When any change is required to be done in it,
the memory card has to be replaced.
• ROM is further classified into:
• Mask programmed ROM.
– Uses a programmed mask.
– By replacing the mask, the chip is programmed.
– Quite expensive.
• OTPEPROM (One Time Programmable-electrically)
• Less expensive than MPROM.
• It consists of many cells of nichrome or poly silicon fuse
links between rows &columns .
• By applying suitable current pulses, these links can be
open circuited (Fused) and thus gets programmed.
• EPROM(UVEPROM)
• It can be re-programmed.
• It has a window in it. By passing UV light
rays on it, the previous program is erased
and becomes blank. New program is
written on it.
• Subsequent production causes some
problem.
• Relatively expensive.
 EEPROM- Electrically Erasable PROM
• It can both be read to and written from.
• Writing process takes considerable amount of
time, therefore it is not suitable as RAM.
• Relatively expensive.
 Difference between RAM & ROM
ROM
Does NOT require constant power to
retain information stored in it. Retains
information even when power is turned –
off.
Data is permanent
Used primarily in the start-up process of a
computer.
Writing data is SLOW
Storage capacity is generally up to
4 Mbytes or more per chip
RAM
Requires constant power to retain
information stored in it. Loses
information, when power is turned-off.
Data is not permanent.
Used in the normal operations of a
computer after start up & loading the
operating system.
Writing data is FAST
Storage capacity is in multiples of
Gigabytes. Up to 16 Giga Bytes

Cheaper Costly

Storage capacity of a memory cell is expressed in Kbyte. 1 Kbyte is 1024 bits, as against
normally understood 1000 Bits. The reason for this is, 1024 happens to be nearest
power 2 (2 to the power 10 = 1024). 2 power 11 is 2048 Bits & 2 power 9 is 512 bits.
STRUCTURE OF A RAM CELL
• The transistors form a R.S Bi-stable, which can
be set or Re-Set by applying a trigger pulse to
appropriate emitter.
• CELL SELECT line is used to identify particular
Cell.
• This type of Cell uses emitter coupled logic
(ECL) by applying either +ve or –ve pulse.
• Individual RAM cells must contain some form
of internal decoding in order to make each cell
accessible individually.
• Access to individual cell is achieved by arranging
the cells in the form of a matrix.
• One possible arrangement is a matrix consisting of
128 Rows & 128 Columns, making a total memory
cells to 16384 ( 128 X 128 )
• Each cell has a unique address and is selected by
applying appropriate logic signal on the rows and
columns. Address bus enables this.
• The cell at top left hand corner correspond to
memory location ‘0’. ( 0000 h)
• The corresponding place in the next row is 128
(0080 h).
• Finally the cell at the bottom right hand corner will
be 16384 ( 3FFF h)
• Structure of ROM CELL is somewhat similar to
that of RAM CELL except the capacity of each.

• In MOS arrangement, a storage capacitor is

used in place of Bi-Stable arrangement.
 INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES
• The input devices are- key board, microphone,
Disc or tape drive, pen drives etc
• The output devices are- printer, displays,
speaker, Disc or tape drive etc.
 INTERCONNECTING DEVICE
• Basic components of a computer system are
interconnected by a multiple wire connectors
known as BUS.
• Address Bus: Used to specify memory
locations. Usually 16 bit buses.
• Data Bus : In this, the data between the
devices are transferred. Usually 8 bit Bus.
• Control Bus : Provides timing & controls
signals.
 CLOCK

• A locally generated clock signal provides a

time reference for synchronizing the transfer
of data. It is a high frequency square wave
pulse train.
 PROGRAMME SOFTWARE
• A Program is simply a sequence of instructions, that
tells a computer to perform a particular operation.
• In a microprocessor, each instruction comprises a
unique pattern of binary digits.
• In addition, a computer requires data and/or address
location to fulfill a particular function.
• This data and/or address also need to be presented to
microprocessor in Binary bit.
• This computer must therefore distinguish the
instructions & data/address.
• Since the computer cannot execute more than one
instruction at a time, it execute the instructions in a
strict sequence.
• A computer program may be presented in many forms.
• The ultimate form, the computer recognize it is in binary.
• But most humans are NOT skilled in binary usage.
• A Pentium processor program is
• 10111000
• 00000001
• 00000000
• 10111011
• 00000010
• 00000001
• 11011000
• 10001001
• 11000001
• 11110100
• The above program has two numbers. ‘0’ & ‘1’.
• Computer adds them and stores the result in
one of the CPU register.
• To simplify this for the human to process, it
must be converted into more meaningful way.
• These methods are to convert them into octal
base, decimal base hexadecimal base.
• Thus the equivalent of above program in
decimal, octal and hex would be as follows.
 DATA DECIMAL OCTAL VALUE HEX VALUE
VALUE
10111000 184 270 B8
00000001 1 1 01
00000000 0 0 00
10111011 187 273 BB
00000010 2 2 02
00000001 1 1 01
11011000 216 330 D8
10001001 137 311 89
11000001 193 301 C1
11110100 244 364 F4

• This makes somewhat easier, but the more easiest is

the Pentium X86 machine language.
 INSTRUCTION SET
• An instruction set is the name given to the
complete range of instructions that can be
used with any particular microprocessor.
• Although there are many similarities among
the instruction sets, each microprocessor has
a unique instruction set.
• Manufacturer generally make common sub-
set of instructions to their product range. It
helps in use of common software & simplifies
development.
• Intel Pentium processors are 8086, 80286,
80386, 80486… which have a common sub-set
(86)
• Instruction sets are presented to
microprocessors in words of 1,2,3,& 4,bytes in
8,16,32,64 bits.
• These instructions are sent to a register in the
processor.
• This register is known as instruction register.
 MNEMONICS
• Definition: A system such as a pattern of letters, ideas, or
associations which assist in remembering something. Some
sort of coded version is created to remember certain things.
• .For e.g- BB ROY GB VGW--- VIBGYOR---ILU
• Most students Forget What Their Teacher Say.
• My Very Elegant Mother Just Served Us Nectarines.
• Most people find it difficult to remember instructions
written in hex.
• This is so, even after working for long time with a particular
processor codes.
• To this end, microprocessor manufacturer created
mnemonics for their instruction codes, in short hand form.
 BACK PLANE BUS SYSTEM
• Computer system in modern aircrafts are
becoming sophisticated.
• They need more powerful processors of 32 & 64
bits.
• Secondly many avionics systems need several
processors operating concurrently, large
memories complex I/O sub systems.
• To meet this requirement, a bus with number of
identical sized cards are mounted on a frame and
linked together at the rear of the cards.
• This system of connections is known as back
plane bus system.
• It links all sub systems of a large computer system,
each of which itself is a PCB card with VLSI devices.
• Back plane bus systems are modular in nature, which
can be changed to meet new demands.
• Modular cards do not need board level servicing .
• By changing the cards the required servicing is done
and it also minimizes down-time.
• It consists of bus master, (the bus master or the
commander), bus slave (the obeyers without much
intelligence) & intelligent slaves (the obeyers with
intelligence), all these together called as multi
processing systems.
 VERSA MODULE EUROCARD BUS
• Aircraft bus system is discussed , where we have seen
transfer of data from one device in the aircraft to another &
also within a device from LRU to LRU.
• Similarly VME bus transfers data within a computer.
• While in the aircraft such data transfer between the devices
is architectured by ARINC organisation, the VME is jointly
architectured by semiconductor manufacturers, Mostek,
Motorola & signetics.
• This is a parallel data transfer framework for 8,16,32 bits
data.
• It can support single as well as multiple processors.
• Rate of data transfer is very fast.
• It uses 2 DIN 41612 indirect connector fitted to each bus
card.
• DIN 41612 indirect connectors has
– data transfer bus
– Priority interrupt bus- provides to microprocessor
with different input datas and tells it on
prioritising them(most important data, first)
– Arbitrarian bus- determines as to which processor
or bus master to have control of the bus at any
particular time.
– Utility bus- provides means of distributing power
and synchronises the power ON/OFF operations.
• Various sub architectures are possible within an
VME bus.
 Some examples of aircraft computer
systems.
• Clock computer: captain’s and F/O clocks are required
to provide various functions besides giving accurate
time in GMT.
• These functions are- display of elapsed time &
provision of input to flight management computer via
ARINC 429.
• Clock is powered by 28V DC.
• Input to the clock consists of various switches to set
the clock parameters changing the clock modes,
freezing the clock display.
• An accurate crystal oscillator provides signal to the
clock.
AIRCRAFT INTEGRATED DATA SYSTEM.
• This system collects & records operational
data in order to analyse aircraft performance
and maintenance requirements.
• The data is acquired by DFDAU (Digital Flight
Data Acquisition Unit) & preserved for future
reference by QAR(Quick Access Recorder).
• QAR comprises a cartridge drive that records
the data on magnetic tape.
• This has a recording capacity of 14 hours.