3 Amplit

Amplitude Modulation
Objectives:
• To introduce amplitude modulation
• To study double sideband suppressed carrier modulation (DSB-SC) systems
• To describe coherent demodulation method for amplitude modulation
• To assess the influence of carrier phase for coherent demodulation
• To briefly explain single sideband modulation (SSB) systems
• To study standard (conventional) amplitude modulation (AM) systems
• To introduce modulation index and illustrate its effect in AM
• To describe envelope demodulation in AM system
• To calculate sideband power, carrier power and transmission efficiency in AM
• To assess the noise performance in amplitude modulation systems
• To compare the performance in different amplitude modulation systems
Recall that
Modulation is the process by which a parameter of a carried
wave is varied in proportion to a signal.
Types of analog modulation

A carrier wave is given by Acos(ct + )
Three parameters: Amplitude A, Frequency c (angular
frequency), Phase .
The modulation process is termed as amplitude modulation,

frequency modulation, or phase modulation.
Baseband communications systems
Characteristics of baseband communication systems:

• The signal is transmitted directly without any modulation.
• Simple system, but not widely used, mainly used in short-haul
system.
Double sideband suppressed carrier modulation (DSB-SC) systems
From modulation theorem
if g(t)  G()
then g(t)cos(ct)  (1/2)[G( + c) + G( - c)]
DSB-SC signal generation
Waveform: sDSB-SC(t) = m(t)cosct
Spectrum: SDSB-SC() = (1/2)[M( + c) + M( - c)]

Principle of coherent demodulation method:
Multiplying the signal m(t)cosct by a local carrier wave cosct

e(t) = m(t)cos2ct = (1/2)[m(t) + m(t)cos2ct]
E() = (1/2)M() + (1/4)[M( + 2c) + M( - 2c)]
Passing through a low pass filter: So() = (1/2)M()

The output signal: so(t) = (1/2)m(t)
Operating principle of DSB-SC system:
Example: Tone modulation

In tone modulation, the modulation signal is a pure sinusoidal,
cosmt.
Signal m(t) = cosmt
Signal spectrum [( + m) + ( - m)]
DSB-SC signal waveform sDSB-SC(t) = cosmt cosct

= (1/2)[cos(c + m)t + cos(c - m)t]
DSB-SC signal spectrum
SDSB-SC() = (/2)[( + c + m) + ( + c - m) +
( - c + m) + ( - c - m)]
When modulated signal multiplied by cosct, then

e(t) = cosmt cos2ct = (1/2)cosmt (1 + cos2ct)
= (1/2)cosmt + (1/2)cosmt cos2ct
Spectrum of e(t)
E() = (/2)[( + m) + ( - m)] + (/4)[( + 2c + m) +
( + 2c - m) + ( - 2c + m) + ( - 2c - m)]
The output signal spectrum after being suppressed by a low

pass filter
So() = (/2)[( + m) + ( - m)]
Output signal waveform
so(t) = (1/2)cosmt
Diagram
The spectrum of the modulated signal consists of

frequency components at c + m and c - m,
there is no component at carrier frequency,
this is why the name suppressed carrier is used.

The demodulation process in a DSB-SC system:

1. Multiplying the modulated signal by a local carrier of the
same frequency and phase
with the carrier at the modulator.
2. The product obtained is then passed through a low pass filter

in order to recover the signal.
This task is difficult to achieve or quite expensive.
(Why?)
Influence of carrier phase for coherent demodulation

DSB-SC signal: sDSB-SC(t) = m(t)cosct
Local carrier wave: cos[(c + c)t + ]
Where c is the frequency error and  is the phase error.
The output from the multiplier :

m(t)cosct cos[(c + c)t + ]
= (1/2)m(t){cos[(2c + c)t + ] + cos(ct +
)}
The output from the low-pass filter :

s(t) = (1/2)m(t)cos(ct + )
When c = 0, only phase error exists, s(t) = (1/2)m(t)cos
If  =  /2, s(t) = 0, there is no component in the output

corresponding to the message.
Furthermore, if  varies with time, s(t) will appear as the noise.
When  = 0, only frequency error c exists,

s(t) = (1/2)m(t)cosct
The message is modified by a low frequency sinusoidal wave

cosct (although c is high, c is usually low), it will be
attenuated and distorted.
Disadvantages of DSB-SC:
1. It transmits both sidebands which contain identical

information and thus waste the channel bandwidth
resources;
2. It requires a fairly complicated (expensive) circuitry

at a remotely located receiver in order to avoid phase
errors.
Single sideband modulation (SSB)
The DSB-SC spectrum contains the upper sideband (USB)

and the lower sideband (LSB), both containing the same
information.
SSB solves the first disadvantage from which DSB-SC suffers

by using a highpass filter at the output of the modulator so
that either the upper sideband or the lower one is filtered out
before transmission.
Lower the bandwidth of the modulated signal can increase the

number of channels.
It is desirable to transmit only one sideband. This creates single

sideband modulation (SSB).
SSB signal generation

The most straightforward way to generate an SSB signal is to
first generate a DSB signal and then suppress one of the sidebands
by filtering.
The primary difficulty of this method is to meet the filter
requirement.
Single sideband modulation (SSB)
Standard (conventional) amplitude modulation (AM)
The disadvantage of high cost receiver circuit of the DSB-SC
system can be solved by use of AM, but at the price of a less
efficient transmitter.
An AM system transmits a large power carrier wave, Acosct,

along with the modulated signal, m(t)cosct, so that there is no
need to generate a carrier at the receiver.
Advantage : simple and low cost receiver
In a broadcast system, the transmitter is associated with a large

number of low cost receivers. The AM system is therefore preferred
for this type of application.
AM signal generation
Waveform :
sAM(t) = Acosct + m(t)cosct = [A + m(t)]cosct
Spectrum :
SAM() = (1/2)[M( + c) + M( - c)] + A[( + m)
+ ( - m)]
The amplitude modulated signal, sAM(t) = [A + m(t)]cosct may

be regards as a carrier signal cosct whose amplitude is given by
the quantity [A + m(t)], i.e. message + dc component.
If the message + dc component is positive, the envelop of the

modulated signal then has the same shape as the message, m(t),
and the demodulation can be carried out by the detection of the
envelope of the carrier, with no dependence on the exact phase or
frequency of the the carrier.
However, if A is not large enough, the envelope of the amplitude

modulated signal is not always proportional to m(t).
Condition for distortionless modulation

A + m(t)  0 or A  m(t)max
If above condition is not satisfied, the m(t)

cannot be recovered by the envelope detection,
but we can still use coherent detection method.
Modulation index m = m(t)max / A
The message signal, m(t), is preserved in the envelope of the AM

signal only if m(t)max  A, i.e. m = m(t)max / A  1
(1) When m < 1, then m(t)max < A, the envelope is not reaching the
zero-amplitude axis of the AM wave. An envelope detector can
recover the message signal without distortion.
(2) When m = 1, then m(t)max = A, the waveform envelope just

touches the zero-amplitude axis. A small variation in the
magnitude of m(t) will cause envelope distortion.
(3) When m > 1, then m(t)max > A, portion of the envelope

crosses the zero-amplitude axis, positive and negative
excursions canceling each other. This situation is called
overmodulation.
An envelope detector will provide distorted message signal. A
portion of the detected message signal is clipped.
A message signal can be recovered from AM signal by using a less

costly and simple envelope detector, provided that m  1.
However, an overmodulated signal can be recovered using a costly
and complex technique: synchronous (coherent) detection.
Example
Show that an AM signal can be recovered, irrespective of the
value of percentage modulation by using synchronous detection
technique.
Solution
sAM(t) = Acosct + m(t)cosct = [A + m(t)]cosct
In coherent detection, sAM(t) is multiplied by cosct and then
passed through a low-pass filter.
Multiplication with cosct yields

sAM(t)cosct = [A + m(t)]cos2ct
= (1/2)[A + m(t)]( 1 + cos2ct)
= A/2 + m(t)/2 + (1/2)[A+ m(t)]cos2ct
After passing through a low-pass filter, the terms centered
around at 2ct are filtered out,
so(t) = (1/2)[A + m(t)]
the constant A/2 can be removed by a capacitor and hence we are
able to recover the baseband signal m(t).
Even overmodulated signal can be recovered using a synchronous

detection, however, the price paid is a complicated circuitry.
Experimental determination of modulation index

The modulation index can be determined experimentally by observing the AM
waveform on an oscilloscope
By definition, m = Em / Ec,
from Em = (1/2)(Emax – Emin)
and Ec = Emin + Em = Emin + (1/2)(Emax – Emin)
= (1/2)(Emax + Emin)
so that m = (Emax – Emin) / (Emax + Emin)
Envelop detector
The simplest envelope detector is a nonlinear charging circuit
with a fast charge time and a slow discharge time.
It can easily be constructed using a diode in series with a
capacitor.
The operation of the envelope detector:

During the positive half-cycles of the input signal, C is charged to
the peak value.
As the input signal falls below its maximum, the diode turns off.
A slow discharge of the capacitor through the resistor begins until
the next positive half-cycle when the diode turns on again.
If the RC value is too large, the envelope detector may miss some
positive half-cycles of the carrier.
If the RC value is too small, the envelope detector generates a
very ragged waveform, losing some of its efficiency.
The envelope detector is simple, efficient, and cheap to build.

Simple envelop detector
In an envelope detection circuit, a diode removes the negative part

of the modulated signal, whereas the filter removes the carrier. The
dc term is eliminated by using ac coupling. (AC coupling uses a
capacitor to block the dc current).
Carrier and sideband power in AM
In AM signal waveforms, the carrier terms does not contain any
information about the signal m(t). Therefore the power expended
in this carrier is wasted for any transfer of information.
A general AM signal waveform

sAM(t) = Acosct + m(t)cosct
The total average power of sAM(t)

s 2 AM (t )  A2 cos 2 ct  m2 (t ) cos 2 ct  2 Am(t ) cos 2 ct
A2 m2 (t )
 A cos ct  m (t ) cos ct 
2 2 2 2

2 2
It is assumed that the average value of m(t) is zero (the usual case)
Total power can be expressed as the sum of the carrier power, Pc,
and sideband power, Ps. A2 m2 (t )
Pt    Pc  Ps
2 2
Carrier power 1  cos 2c t A2
Pc  A cos ct  A
2 2 2

2 2
Sideband power 2
m (t )
Ps  m(t )2 cos2 ct 
2
The transmission efficiency of AM signal
The amount of useful message power present in AM wave is
expressed by a term called transmission efficiency.
Ps Ps m 2 (t )
  
Pt Pc  Ps A2  m 2 (t )
Example Tone modulation
Message signal m(t) = Amcosmt
AM signal sAM(t) = Acosct + m(t)cosct
= Acosct + Amcosmtcosct
=A[1 + (Am/A) cosmt]cosct
= A(1 + m cosmt)cosct
= Acosct + m A cosmtcosct
we have A2 1 1 2 2 A2 1 2 2 A2 1 2 m2
Pt  s AM (t ) 
2
 m A   m A  (1  m )  Pc (1  )
2 22 2 4 2 2 2
Ps m2
 
Pc  Ps 2  m2
Because m  1, the transmission efficiency of an AM system is
at best 33%.
Example
A given AM braoadcast station transmits an average carrier
power output of 40 kW and uses a modulation index of 0.707
for sine wave modulation. Calculate (a) the total average
power output ; (b) the transmission efficiency ; and (c) the
peak amplitude of output if the antenna is represented by a
50 resistive load.
Solution
Pt = Pc(1 + m2/2)
For m = 0.707, Pt = Pc(1 + 1/4) = (5/4)Pc = (5/4) 40 = 50 kW
Pc = A2 / 2R, A2 = 2RPc = 4  106
(1 + m)A = 3414 V
In order to determine the signal-to-noise (SNR), we have to

consider the noise effect in the communication system.
Communication in the presence of noise

In communication systems, message signal travels from the
transmitter to the receiver via a channel.
The channel introduces additive noise in the message and,
hence, the message reaching the receiver becomes corrupted.
The receiver detects both noise and message signals, it

reproduces a noisy message at the output.
In a communication system, the noise introduced by

the transmission channel is considered as white noise.
White noise
White noise is noise whose power spectral density is uniform over
the entire the frequency range. The term white is used in analogy
with white light, which is a superposition of all visible spectral
components.
Sn() =  / 2
Where  is a constant.
Angle Modulation
Baseband system
The baseband signal is assumed to be band limited and the

channel be distortionless, then
The output signal power: Ps  m2 (t )
 
 2   Wm
Wm
The output noise power 1
No 
2 2

d  
2 0 2
d  
2 
0
d 
2
The output SNR for the baseband system:
2 Ps
SNRo ,base  
Wm
Angle Modulation
SNR for DSB and SSB transmission
It can be shown that:

SNR o, DSB  SNR o , SSB  SNR o , base  
SNR for AM (with a large carrier)
SNR o , AM  
Comparison of various AM systems
Receiver end
Standard AM (large carrier) system:
• Simple and inexpensive envelope detectors.
• Preferably used in public communication systems where a
transmitter is associated with a large number of receivers.
Suppressed carrier system:

• Complex and high cost as they need additional synchronizing
circuits.
Transmitter end
Suppressed carrier system:
• Low power transmitters are needed as no carrier power is
transmitted.
• The low power transmitters are less expensive than the large
power AM transmitters.
• Useful in point to point communication where we need many
transmitters but only few receivers per transmitter.
Generation of modulated signals

SSB-SC is more difficult to generate than DSB-SC.
Bandwidth
SSB-SC system:
• Message bandwidth.
• Used in long-range high-frequency communications, especially
in audio communication, where phase-distortion is not
significant.
DSB-SC and standard AM systems:

• Twice message bandwidth.
Transmission efficiency
Suppressed carrier system: 100%
Standard AM system: the maximum efficiency is only 33.3%,
corresponding to m = 1.
Noise performance
SSB-SC and DSB-SC systems:

• The same output signal-to-noise ratio as baseband
system.
The standard AM system (with a large carrier):

• Reduced output signal-to-noise ratio when compared
with baseband system.
Conclusion
• Each type of amplitude has its advantages
and disadvantages.
• Each circumstance must be evaluated on
its own merits and the choice of
modulation tailored to that situation.
Questions (Amplitude Modulation)
1. Name three parameters of the carrier that can be varied to
produce modulation.
2. Define amplitude modulation.
3. Is the signal modulated when it transmits through a baseband
communication system?
4. How to generate a DSB-SC signal?
5. Draw a time-domain and frequency-domain picture of a DSB-
SC signal.
6. What is the demodulation method for DSB-SC signal?
7. What is tone modulation?
8. What is the influence of carrier phase for coherent
demodulation?
9. What are the key advantages offered by AM over DSB-SC?
Questions (Amplitude Modulation)
10. What is the condition for distortionless modulation?

11. Define modulation index.
12. Explain why 100% modulation is not an ideal value.
13. Define overmodulation.
14. What happens to the modulation index of an AM signal if the
carrier level remains constant and the sideband level increases?
15. How to determine the modulation index experimentally?
16. What is the main demodulation method used for standard AM
signal?
17. Write the expression of transmission efficiency for AM signal.
18. What is the merit of SSB-SC system?
19. What is white noise?
20. Compare the characteristics of various AM systems.
Exercise Problems (Amplitude Modulation)
1. An AM voltage signal consists of a carrier wave 100cos(2 
106t) and a DSB-SC signal (20cos6.28t + 50cos12.56t) cos(2 
106t),
(a) Draw the spectrum of the modulated message;
(b) Determine the carrier power, sideband power and the total
power of the modulated signal.
2. An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30W. The message

signal is a sinusoidal signal and the percentage of modulation
is 85%, i.e. m = 0.85. Calculate:
(a)the total power; and
(b) the power in one sideband.
3. For DSB-SC modulation, m(t) = 4 + 2cos(2  103t), carrier
wave xc(t) = 8cos(2  106t)
(a) Draw the frequency domain representation of m(t), xc(t) and
the modulation output x(t);
(b) Draw the block diagram of the demodulation system
diagram, if low pass filter is used in the demodulator, what is
the minimum bandwidth required to fully recover the signal?
(c) What is the frequency and time domain representation of the
demodulation output?
4. The figure below shows an amplitude modulator. Assuming
sinusoidal carrier xc(t) and sinusoidal message signal m(t),
i.e., xc(t) = Accosct, m(t) = Amcosmt
The modulated signal x(t) can be written as
x(t) = Ac[1 + (Am/Ac)cosmt]cosct
(a) For Am = Ac, calculate the modulation index;
(b) Determine the fraction of total transmitted power
concentrated in the modulation sideband for(1) Am = Ac; (2)
Am = Ac/2;(3) Am = aAc, where a < 1;
5. To prove that the following system can be used for AM signal

demodulation and the bandwidth of the low-pass filter must
be 2Wm, where Wm is the highest frequency of the message
signal.
6. The following figure shows the output of a conventional
amplitude modulator.
(1) What is the mathematical expression of x(t)?
(2) Calculate the modulation index;
(3) What is the amplitude of the sideband? What is the amplitude
of the unmodulated carrier?
(4) Draw a two sided frequency domain representation of x(t);
(5) What is the ratio of power in the sidebands to the total power?
Solutions (Amplitude Modulation)
1. (a) sAM(t) = 100cos(2  106t) + (20cos6.28t + 50cos12.56t)cos(2  106t)

SAM() = 100[( + 2  106) + ( - 2  106)] + 25[( - 2  106 +
12.56) + ( - 2  106 - 12.56) + ( + 2  106 + 12.56) + ( +
2  106 – 12.56)] + 10[( - 2  106 + 6.28) + ( - 2  106 –
6.28) + ( + 2  106 + 6.28) + ( + 2  106 – 6.28)]
(b) Pc = 5  103, Ps = (202 + 502) / 4 = 2900 / 4 = 725, Pt = 5725

(when a resistor of 1 is assumed the unit of power is W)
2. (a) Pt = Pc(1 + m2/2) = 30 (1 + 0.852/2) = 40.8W

Ps (double sideband) = Pt - Pc = 40.8 – 30 = 10.8W
Ps (single sideband) = Ps / 2 = 10.8 / 2 = 5.4W
3. (a) m(t) = 4 + 2cos(2  103t),
M() = 8() + 2[( + 2  103) + ( - 2  103)]
xc(t) = 8cos(2  106t)
Xc() = 8[( + 2  106) + ( - 2  106)]
x(t) = m(t)xc(t) = 32cos(2  106t) + 16cos(2  103t)cos(2  106t)
X() = 32[( + 2  106) + ( - 2  106)] + 8[( + 2  106 -
2  103) + ( + 2  106 + 2  103) + ( - 2  106 - 2  103) +
( - 2  106 + 2  103)]
(b) Wm = 2  103 rad or fm = 1kHz

(c) y(t) = x(t)xc(t) = [4 + 2cos(2  103t)] [8cos(2  106t)]2
= [4 + 2cos(2  103t)]  32[1 + cos(4  106t)]
= 128 + 64cos(2  103t) + 128cos(4  106t) +
64cos(2  103t)cos(4  106t)
= 128 + 64cos(2  103t) + 128cos(4  106t)
+ 32[cos(4  106t + 2  103t) + cos(4 
106t - 2  103t)]
After LPF, z(t) = 128 + 64cos(2  103t)
Z() = 256() + 64[( + 2  103)
+ ( - 2  103)]
4. (a) m = Am/Ac = 1
(b) Carrier power Pc = Ac2 / 2,
Sideband power Ps = m2 Ac2 / 4
Total power Pt = Ac2 / 2 + m2 Ac2 / 4,  = Ps / Pt = m2 / (m2 + 2)
(1) m = 1,  = 1/3
(2) m = ½,  = 1/9
(3) m = a,  = a2 / (a2 + 2)
5. sAM(t) = [A + m(t)]cosct, sAM2(t) = [A + m(t)]2cos2ct

The output of LPF = [A + m(t)]2 / 2, A  m(t )
sd (t ) 
If m(t) = Amcosmt, the highest frequency is m; 2
then m2(t) = Am 2(1 + cos2mt)/2, the highest frequency is 2m.
thus the bandwidth of the low pass filter must be 2Wm
6. (1) x(t) = A(1 + m cosmt) cosct,
x(t)max = 1, x(t)min = 0.4,
i.e. A(1 + m) = 1, A(1 - m) = 0.4
 m = (1 – 0.4) / (1 + 0.4) = 0.429, A = 1 / (1 + m) = 0.7
 x(t) = 0.7(1 + 0.429 cosmt) cosct
(2) m = 0.429
(3) Sideband amplitude:

Am / 2 = mA / 2 = (0.7)(0.429) / 2 = 0.15
Unmodulated carrier amplitude:
A = 0.7
(4)
(5) Am = (1 – 0.4) / 2 = 0.3

Sideband power: Ps = Am2/ 4 = 0.0225
Total power: Pt = Ps + A2/ 2 = 0.0225 + (0.7)2/ 2 = 0.0225
+ 0.245 = 0.2675
Ratio = 0.0225 / 0.2675 = 8.4%

3 Amplit

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Amplitude Modulation

Types of analog modulation

The modulation process is termed as amplitude modulation,

Baseband communications systems

Characteristics of baseband communication systems:

DSB-SC signal generation

Waveform: sDSB-SC(t) = m(t)cosct

Spectrum: SDSB-SC() = (1/2)[M( + c) + M( - c)]

Principle of coherent demodulation method:

Multiplying the signal m(t)cosct by a local carrier wave cosct

Passing through a low pass filter: So() = (1/2)M()

Example: Tone modulation

DSB-SC signal waveform sDSB-SC(t) = cosmt cosct

When modulated signal multiplied by cosct, then

The output signal spectrum after being suppressed by a low

The spectrum of the modulated signal consists of

there is no component at carrier frequency,

this is why the name suppressed carrier is used.

The demodulation process in a DSB-SC system:

2. The product obtained is then passed through a low pass filter

This task is difficult to achieve or quite expensive.

Influence of carrier phase for coherent demodulation

The output from the multiplier :

The output from the low-pass filter :

When c = 0, only phase error exists, s(t) = (1/2)m(t)cos

If  =  /2, s(t) = 0, there is no component in the output

When  = 0, only frequency error c exists,

The message is modified by a low frequency sinusoidal wave

1. It transmits both sidebands which contain identical

2. It requires a fairly complicated (expensive) circuitry

Single sideband modulation (SSB)

The DSB-SC spectrum contains the upper sideband (USB)

SSB solves the first disadvantage from which DSB-SC suffers

Lower the bandwidth of the modulated signal can increase the

It is desirable to transmit only one sideband. This creates single

SSB signal generation

An AM system transmits a large power carrier wave, Acosct,

In a broadcast system, the transmitter is associated with a large

The amplitude modulated signal, sAM(t) = [A + m(t)]cosct may

If the message + dc component is positive, the envelop of the

However, if A is not large enough, the envelope of the amplitude

Condition for distortionless modulation

If above condition is not satisfied, the m(t)

Modulation index m = m(t)max / A

The message signal, m(t), is preserved in the envelope of the AM

(2) When m = 1, then m(t)max = A, the waveform envelope just

(3) When m > 1, then m(t)max > A, portion of the envelope

A message signal can be recovered from AM signal by using a less

Multiplication with cosct yields

Even overmodulated signal can be recovered using a synchronous

Experimental determination of modulation index

The operation of the envelope detector:

The envelope detector is simple, efficient, and cheap to build.

Simple envelop detector

In an envelope detection circuit, a diode removes the negative part

A general AM signal waveform

The total average power of sAM(t)

In order to determine the signal-to-noise (SNR), we have to

Communication in the presence of noise

The receiver detects both noise and message signals, it

In a communication system, the noise introduced by

The baseband signal is assumed to be band limited and the

SNR for DSB and SSB transmission