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GMF AeroAsia

LEARNING SERVICES

BASIC AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE


Bachelor Degree
MATERIALS HARDWARE

Date: May 2013.


FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY @ Learning Services
MATERIALS

UPON COMPLETION OF TRAINING, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:


• Identify characteristics and properties common alloys.
• Heat treatment and application of alloy steels.
• Testing for hardness, tensile, fatigue and impact.

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Date: May 2013. FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY @ Learning Services
MATERIALS

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MATERIALS

In aircraft maintenance and repair, deviation from


design specification, or the substitution may result in
the loss of both lives and equipment.
The selection of the correct material for a specific
repair job demands familiarity with the most common
physical properties of various metals.

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MATERIALS

Hardness
Hardness and Strength are closely associated
properties of materials; refers to the ability of a metal
to resist penetration or permanent distortion.
Strenght
Is a ability of a material to resist deformation (resist
stress without breaking).
Malleability
Is a metal properties which can be hammered, rolled, or
pressed into various shapes without cracking, breaking.
{usually increase with temp (hot working process)}.
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MATERIALS

Ductility
Is the property of a metal which permits it to be
permanently drawn (extended). Ductility metals
increase as temperature increase.
Elasticity
Is that property which enables a metal to return to its
original shape when the force removed.
Toughness
Ability a metal to resist suddenly applied loads.

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MATERIALS

Brittleness
Is the property of a metal which allows little bending
or deformation to shattering.
Conductivity
Is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or
electricity.
Plasicity
The ability to retain a deformation after the load
producing it has been removed.
These properties can be assessed by laboratory
tested.
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MATERIALS

Tensile Test
By applying increasing loads to test specimen until
fractures, to determine strength of material.
Strength (Tensile Stress), the pieces able to sustain a
maximum load called STRESS.

Cross Section Area

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MATERIALS

Strain
As load in tensile is increased cause the material
extends in length.

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MATERIALS

Load/Extension.
Load

Plastic, does not return


to its original
B Reduces cross-sectional (necks)

A
C
Yield Point Fracture

Elastic, strain is directly


proportional to stress

0
Hooke’s Law. Extension
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MATERIALS

Stress/Strain.
Stress is the Force per unit area, Strain is the extension
per unit Ultimate
length.Tensile
Stress

Stress

B
Reduces cross-sectional
A
(necks)
Yield point

Strain
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MATERIALS

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MATERIALS

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MATERIALS

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MATERIALS

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MATERIALS

There are five basic stresses which metals may be


required to withstand, these are:
• Tension,
Its resistance to a force which tends to pull it apart, is
measured in p.s.i and is calculated by dividing the load, in
pounds by its cross-sectional area, in square inches.
• Compression,
Its resistance to a crushing force which is the opposite of
tensile strength. Compression strength is also measured in
p.s.i.

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MATERIALS

There are five basic stresses which metals may be


required to withstand, these are:
• Shear,
Is the tendency on the part of parallel members to slide in
opposite directions, the shear strength is the shear force in
p.s.i. at which a material fails.
• Bending,
Strength of material is the resistance it offers to deflecting
forces.
• Torsion.
Is a twisting force (a member fixed at one end and twisted at
the other).

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MATERIALS

The term “FERROUS”, is group of metals having iron


as their principal element.
If carbon is added to iron approximately 1% carbon,
the product to iron alone is classified as carbon steel
(forms the base of those alloy steels, combining
carbon with other elements known to improve the
properties of steel).
A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities
of other metals have been added is called an alloy.

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MATERIALS

Iron is produced by reducing iron ore to pig iron


through blast furnace, from pig iron other types of
iron and steel are produce (addition or deletion of
carbon and alloys).
• PIG IRON (93% iron, 3% to 5% carbon),
comparatively weak and brittle.
• CAST IRON any iron containing >2% carbon alloy
(high strength and good wear resistance; lacks
ductility, malleability, and impact strength).

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MATERIALS

Iron is produced by reducing iron ore to pig iron


through blast furnace, from pig iron other types of
iron and steel are produce (addition or deletion of
carbon and alloys).
• WROUGHT IRON (from pig iron mixed with some
slag) easily formed (low hardness and low fatigue
strength).
• INGOT IRON commercially pure iron (99.85% iron)
easily formed, good ductility, corrosion resistance

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MATERIALS
Three methods of making steel:
• OPEN HEARTH Process - obtained by burning a mixture of gas
and air.

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MATERIALS

Three methods of making steel:


• BASIC OXYGEN Process (oxygen converter process) -
which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel,

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MATERIALS

Three methods of making steel:


• ELECTRICAL ARCs – produced by electric arcs
between carbon electrodes and steels.

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MATERIALS

STEEL is manufactured from pig iron by decreasing


the amount of carbon and other impurities and
adding specific amounts of alloying elements,
controlling amounts of alloying elements, the
composition of steel is determined by application and
the specifications that were developed by:
• American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and
• American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).

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MATERIALS

SAE number consists of a group of digits:


• Four numeral series, used to designate the plain
carbon and alloy steel.
• Five numerals are used to designate certain types of
alloy steels.
The first two digits represents the type of steel;
The second digit, generally gives amount of the major
alloying element; and
The last two (three digits), to indicate the middle of
carbon range.

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MATERIALS

Small quantities of certain elements are present in


alloy steels that are not specified required, example
copper 0.35%, nickel 0.25%, chromium 0.20%, etc.

XXXXX
10,11,12,15 Carbon Steel
23,25 Nickel Steel
31,32,33,34 Nickel chromium
Major alloying element
Carbon range

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MATERIALS

10
0 30
10,11,12,15 Carbon Steel
Plain Carbon-steel
.30% of carbon

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MATERIALS

SAE NUMERICAL INDEX


TYPE SERIES DESIGNATION
Nonsulphuriszed carbon steels 100xx
Resulphurised carbon steels (free machine) 11xx
Rephosphorized and resulphurised carbon steel 12xx
(free machine)
Manganese 1.75% 13xx
Nickel 3.50% *23xx
Nickel 5.00% *25xx
Nickel 1.25%, chromium 0.65% 31xx
Nickel 3.50%, chromium 1.55% 33xx
Molybdenum 0.20 or 0.25% 40xx

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MATERIALS

SAE NUMERICAL INDEX


TYPE SERIES DESIGNATION
Chromium 0.50% or 0.95%, molybdenum 0.12% or 41xx
0.20%
Nickel 1.80%, chromium 0.5 or 0.80%, 43xx
molybdenum0.25%
Molybdenum 0.40% 44xx
Molybdenum 0.52% 45xx
Nickel 1.80%, molybdenum 0.25% 46xx
Nickel 1.05%, chromium 0.45%, molybdenum 0.20% 47xx
or 0.35%
Nickel 3.50%, molybdenum 0.25% 48xx
Chromium 0.25, or 0.40 or 0.50% 50xx
Carbon 1.00%, chromium0.50% 50xxx

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MATERIALS

SAE NUMERICAL INDEX


TYPE SERIES DESIGNATION
Chromium 0.80, 0.90, 0.95 or 1.00% 51xx
Carbon 1.00%, chromium 1.05% 51xxx
Carbon 1.00%, chromium 1.45% 52xxx
Chromium 0.60, 0.80, 0.95, vanadium 0.12%, 0.10% 61xx
min, or 0.15% min
Nickel 0.30%, chromium 0.40%, molybdenum 0.12% 81xx
Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.50%, molybdenum 0.20% 86xx
Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.05%, molybdenum 0.25% 87xx
Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.05%, molybdenum 0.35% 88xx
Manganese 0.85%, silicon 2.00%, chromium 0 or 92xx
0.35%

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MATERIALS

SAE NUMERICAL INDEX


TYPE SERIES DESIGNATION
Nickel 3.25%, chromium 1.20%, molybdenum 0.12% 93xx
Nickel 0.45%, chromium 0.40%, molybdenum 0.12% 94xx
Nickel 1.00%, chromium 0.80%, molybdenum 0.25% 98xx

* Not included in the current list of standard steels

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MATERIALS

SAE NUMERICAL INDEX (Major Classification)


TYPE OF STEEL CLASSIFICATION
Carbon Steel 1xxx
Nickel Steel 2xxx
Nickel-chromium Steel 3xxx
Molybdenum Steel 4xxx
Chromium Steel 5xxx
Chromium-vanadium Steel 6xxx
Tungsten 7xxx
Nickel-chromium-vanadium 8xxx
Silicon-manganese 9xxx

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MATERIALS

Substitution of Aircraft Metals:


For the repair and maintenance of aircraft, it is very
important to check the appropriate structural repair
manual to meet a specific load requirement for a
particular aircraft:
• Maintain original strength
• Maintain contour (aerodynamic).
• Maintain original weight.
• Maintain corrosion resistant.

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MATERIALS

There are three methods of metal working:


• Hot-working
From the ingot into (plastically deformed above their
recrystallization temperature) some of process either
hot or cold-worked to the finished shape, stripped
ingot from its mold (surface solid, interior molten);
then placed in soaking process (loosing heat to solid
interior) make it throughout the ingot by rolling more
readily handled.

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MATERIALS

There are three methods of metal working:


• Cold-working
Mechanical working performed at below critical
range of temperature (make it strain harden, difficult
to forming without softening by annealing).
The strength and hardness as well as the elastic limit
are increased, but the ductility decreases

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MATERIALS

There are several cold-working processes, two


principally concerned are:
• Cold-rolling (working at room temperature)
• Cold-drawing (making wire, dried in a steam room).
These processes give the metals desirable qualities
reduced ductility, increase strength.

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MATERIALS

Cold-rolling usually refers to the working of metal at


room temperature, this operation, the materials that
have been hot-rolled to approximate sizes are pickled
to remove any scale, after which they are passed
through chilled finished rolls.
Cold-drawing is used in making seamless tubing, wire,
streamline tie rods, and other forms of stock (made
from hot-rolled rods of various diameters).

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MATERIALS

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MATERIALS

Drawn rod Drawing jaw


Hot rolled rod

25% - 45% reduction for


Steel die each draw

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MATERIALS

There are three methods of metal working:


• Extruding
Forcing of the metal through die opening (flexible),
to shape desired for the cross section (Channel,
angles, T-sections, and Z-sections).

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MATERIALS

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MATERIALS
HEAT TREATMENT OF NON FERROUS METAL:
• Solution Heat Treatment
• Precipitation Heat Treatment
The hardening of an aluminum alloy by heat treatment process
consists:
• Heating to predetermined temperature (solution heat
treatment),
• Soaking at temperature (specified length of time),
• Rapidly quenching (relatively low temperature) and
• Aging or precipitation hardening (spontaneously at room
temperature).

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MATERIALS
Alclad, is a protective covering of a thin sheet pure aluminum
5.5% on the surface of an aluminum alloy (Zinc chromate is a
protective that can be applied to an aluminum surface, used a
primer on steel surfaces).
Alclad is the name given to standard aluminum alloys that have
been coated on both sides with a thin layer of pure aluminum,
has very good corrosion-resisting qualities and is used
exclusively for exterior surfaces of aircraft.
Alclad sheets are available in all tempers of 2014, 2017, 7075,
and 7178.

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MATERIALS

To develop certain desirable characteristics of metal


which involves controlled heating and cooling of
metals (called heat treatment or heat treating).
Heat Treatment Theory - processes are similar
(involve the heating and cooling), differ in the heating
temperature and cooling rates used.

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MATERIALS
Temp 0C

Temp of material

B
900
A
700
500
Rates of cooling
200

C D E F G
Time
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MATERIALS

HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METAL:


• HARDENING
Heating the steel to a set temperature (above critical
temp) and then cooling it rapidly by plunging it into oil,
water, or brine.
Air-cooled, increases the hardness and strength of the
steel but makes it less ductile more brittle. To remove
some of the brittleness should temper the steel after
hardening.

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MATERIALS

HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METAL:


• TEMPERING
After the hardening treatment, steel is often harder and
too brittle also severe internal stresses are set up during
the rapid cooling from hardening temperature. To
relieve the internal stresses and reduce brittleness,
temper the steel after it is hardened.
Tempering is conduct heating the steel to a specific
temperature (below its hardening temperature/low
critical point), holding it at that temperature and then
cooling it usually instill air.
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MATERIALS

HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METAL:


• ANNEALING
The opposite of hardening, to relieve internal stresses,
soften and make them more ductile, refine their grain
structures.
Heating a metal to a specific temperature (just above
the upper critical point), holding it at that temperature
then cooling the metal to room temperature or by
immersing in ashes.

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MATERIALS

HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METAL:


• NORMALIZING
The purpose of normalizing is to remove the internal
stresses induced by heat treating, welding, casting,
forging, forming, or machining.
Restores the crystalline structure to a normal condition
and relives stresses and strain.
The metal is heated to a higher temperature (upper
critical point) and then removed from the furnace for
air cooling.

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MATERIALS
The soaking period depends on both the mass of the
part and the type of metal

Approximate Soaking Periods for Hardening, Annealing, and


Normalizing Steel

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MATERIALS

HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METAL:


• CASE HARDENING
Produces a hard wear-resistant surface, the principal
forms of casehardening:
• Carburizing,
• Cyaniding, and
• Nitriding.
The steel suited to casehardening are the low carbon
and low alloy steels.
Other hard surfaces techniques; such as by Electro-
plating, Welding, Bonding and Metal spray.
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MATERIALS

Carburizing
A case-hardening process by which carbon is added to the
surface of low-carbon steel. The case of steel becomes
hardened and the core remains soft and tough.
Method of carburizing
• Pack Carburizing
Packed in a container with charcoal or other material rich in
carbon, heated to approximately 1,700° F and soaked at that
temperature for several hours.
• Gas Carburizing
A material rich in carbon introduced into the furnace atmosphere
by the use of various gases or by the burning of oil, wood, or other
materials.
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MATERIALS

Carburizing
A case-hardening process by which carbon is added to the
surface of low-carbon steel. The case of steel becomes
hardened and the core remains soft and tough.
Method of carburizing
• Liquid Carburizing
The steel is placed in a molten salt bath contains the
chemicals required to produce a case.

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MATERIALS

Cyaniding
Type of case hardening that is fast and efficient.
Preheated steel is dipped into a heated cyanide bath and
allowed to soak this process produces a thin, is not used in
aircraft work; that cyanide salts are a deadly poison.
Nitriding
This method produces the hardest surface.
It differs from the other methods in that the individual parts
have been heat-treated and tempered before nitriding, heated
in a furnace that has an ammonia gas.
The part is placed in a special nitriding furnace and heated to a
temperature of approximately 1,000° F

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MATERIALS

Types, and uses of Alloyed Steels:


CARBON
• Steel containing carbon ranges from 0.10 to 0.30 %
is classed as Low Carbon steel (SAE 1010 to 1030).
• Steel containing carbon ranges from 0.30 to 0.50 %
is classed as Medium Carbon steel (SAE 1035).
• Steel containing carbon ranges from 0.50 to 1.50 %
is classed as High Carbon steel (SAE 1095).

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MATERIALS
The greater carbon content; the steel becomes to heat-
treatment and its increase strength and hardness, its decreases
malleability and weld ability.
NICKEL
3 to 3.75 % nickel are commonly used combining nickel with
carbon steel SAE 2330 (increases the hardness, tensile strength,
and elastic limit).
NICKEL ALLOYS
- Nimonics, group of nickel alloy contains 50-80% nickel with chrome
(low coefficient of expansion).
- Inconel & Hastelloy, temp and corrosion resistance.
- Monel, 68% nickel & 29% copper is non-magnetic excellent resist
corrosion and chemical.
- K-monel, monel alloyed with all 2–4 % become hard.
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MATERIALS
CHROMIUM (CHROME)
Chromium steel is high in hardness, strength, and corrosion
resistant properties.
- 1.5% chrome, in hi-carbon 1% steel (low chrome steels, 1.5-3%).
Steels > 12% chrome corrosion resist or Stainless Steel in this
category. 18/8, 18% chrome and 8% nickel.
MANGANESE
- 1.5% manganese, steel is strong and hard. Small amount
manganese are used in welding rods.
TUNGSTEN
- Extremely high melting, tungsten steel are used for contact-
breaker, high speed cutting tools.

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MATERIALS
COBALT
HSS in addition to chrome, vanadium, molybdenum and tungsten
to improve ability to cut at high working temperatures.
VANADIUM
Improves the strength without loss of ductility, its toughness and resist
to fatigue (spring).

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MATERIALS
Various methods of hardness test for Mechanical Standard
Test:
• Brinell
For determining the hardness of metallic
material.
Uses a hardened spherical ball, which is
forced into the surface of the metal.
The load is applied by hydraulic pressure
(hand pump or an electric motor), a press
gauge indicates the amount of pressure.

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MATERIALS
Various methods of hardness test for Mechanical Standard
Test:
• Brinell
3,000 kilograms (6,600 pounds) be
maintain at least 10 sec is used for ferrous
metals and 500 kilograms at least 30 sec
for nonferrous metals.
To determine the Brinell hardness
number, the diameter of the impression is
first measured, using microscope than
converted into the Brinell Hardness
Number (BHN).
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MATERIALS

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MATERIALS

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MATERIALS

• Vickers
Use Pyramid (diamond) identer, like Brinell by applying a load
to an identer.

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MATERIALS

• Vickers
VHN, measured by average diagonals (d1 and d2), convert to
the table.

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MATERIALS

• Rockwell
Measures depth and hardness is
indicated directly on a dial attached.
Types of penetration are used a Diamond
cone or hardened steel Ball. The results
of each penetrator and load combination
are reported on separate scales,
designated by letters (Penetrator, Major
load, and the Scale vary with the kind of
metal being tested).

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MATERIALS

• Rockwell

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MATERIALS

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