Rigid Pipeline Design & Installation

Pipe Design
 Introduction
Pipeline Design – General
Flow Assurance
Routing
Wall Thickness
Insulation
Agenda On-bottom Stability
Corrosion Protection
Expansion
Jumper & Spool Design
Impact Protection
Free Span
Buckling and Walking
Crossing
Fatigue

18-Jun-
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19
Introduction
• A pipeline is an efficient mode of conveying gas or liquid from one
point to the other.
• The distance of transportation may vary from a few meters to
several hundred kilometres, in some cases it may be more than
1000km.
• The product that has to be transported can be a mixture with gas,
oil and impurities.
• These products are sometimes separated into single phase products
such as oil, gas etc before transportation.
• Pipelines that transport unprocessed product are sometimes
referred to as production lines.
• Pipelines that transport processed oil or gas are referred to as
export lines.

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Introduction - Terminology
• Subsea pipelines are to transport
– Wellhead fluids
– Processed oil and gas
– Water/MEG

• Terminology
– Flowline for in-field pipeline (within field development)
– Export pipeline (or trunkline) for outwith the field
development
– Pipeline describes both

• Flowlines are categorised by task

– Production flowline
– Water injection flowline
– Gas lift/injection flowline
– MEG flowline

18-Jun-
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 Introduction – Field Layout CLOV FPSO
150 kbopd
Risers
WI network
WD 1,275 m

Export Buoy

Production FL
ID = 10"

Umbilical

Power Umbilical

Umbilical
WI Flow Line
MPP Module.
ID = 10"
Umbilical Umbilical

WI Flow Line Production FL

10¾" OD. ID = 10"
Production FL
Production FL 12¾″ OD.
12¾″ OD.
O-V CENTRAL

WI Flow Line
ID = 10"
LIRIO
Umbilical

O11W
Umbilical

WI Flow Line
10¾" OD. Gas Export Flow Line
Gas Export
to CLOV SSIV.
ID = 10"

Umbilicals Subsea Isolation Valve

SSIV
Gas Export Line
to PLEM 17b/c
ID = 12"

SSIV Umbilical
CRAVO

Production

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipelines Typical Characteristics
Water Gas
Production Service lines Export lines
injection lift/injection

Shorter length Longer length

Large diameter (e.g.

small to medium diameter (e.g. 6" to 12") small diameter (<4")
16" +)

Operate at moderate Operate at moderately

May operate at high pressure (e.g. 500 bar) pressure (e.g. 300 low pressure (<300
bar) bar)

May operate at high temperature Operate at moderately low Operate at low Operate at ambient
(>100°C) temperature (<50°C) temperature (< 30°C) seawater temperature

Usually coated with anti-corrosion

Usually coated with anti-corrosion material May be concrete coated
and thermal insulating materials

Material may be of CRA (corrosion

resistant alloys)

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipelines System Design - Phases
Pipeline design are typically undertaken in three phases as
follows:

• Conceptual study – technical feasibility and preliminary

cost estimate.

• Preliminary design – definition of pipe characteristics,

construction method etc. Detail project cost estimate.

• Detail design and engineering – detailed design,

fabrication, installation and commissioning.

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Design General
• Pipeline design issues
– In-service loads
- Internal pressure
- External pressure
- Pressure and temperature induced expansion and global buckling
- On-bottom stability (current and waves effects)
- Protection (trawl board impact, dropped objects)

– But don’t forget installation issues

- Reeling/plastic bending
- Steep S-lay
- Installation vessel limiting capacities

18-Jun-
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 Introduction – Pipeline Design General

Environmental data
Operational data
Geophysic &
Geotechnic

Protection Field Layout

Requirement

Installation Data Design Code

Material Data
18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Design Codes
• The safety philosophy for the pipeline through design codes and standards,
• Primary design codes such as API, ASME, DNV, BS, PD, etc. are available for
pipeline design.
• The code is selected by the operator depending on location (geographical,
onshore/offshore), fluid conveyed, etc.
• Each design code has its own set of criteria to be followed in pipeline design.
• The pipeline design has to consider and mitigate against the foreseeable
failure modes so that the pipeline is fit for purpose.

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Design Codes
• Design code usually selected by client
• The codes ensure that the pipeline systems have an acceptable
safety level during installation and operation during the full design
life
• The pipe design must comply with the selected design code(s)
• Design codes falls into 2 categories: ASD & LRFD (or LSD)

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Design Codes
• Most commonly used design codes
– ASD
- PD 8010 (UK + international)
- ASME B31.4 and B31.8 (USA + international)

– LRFD
- DNV OS F101 (Norway + international)
- API 1111 (USA)
- NEN 3650 (the Netherlands)
- DNV 1996 (Norway)
- DNV OS-F201 (Norway)

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 FC 01
Introduction – Pipeline Design
Pipeline design

N101 A, B, N
Route Selection
FC 01
Pipeline design

N101 A, B, N

A, E, K
Route Selection
A, E, K
N102
Wall Thickness dimensioning

L
N102
N103
Anti-Corrosion Coating Selection
A, B, J, K Wall Thickness dimensioning
& dimensioning

L
N104
Flow Assurance L
L

A
N105
On-Bottom Stability Analysis N103
L N112
Dropped Object Protection
Anti-Corrosion Coating Selection A, B, J, K
N117
Pipe Stacking Height
N106
Thermo-hydraulic
Dimensioning
& dimensioning
M N113
A, K Allowable Free Spans

F
J
A
L
N107
N111 N114
Thermal Expansion
Cathodic Protection
A, B,
Bottom Roughness
N104
C, F
L
D G H
Flow Assurance
N108 N115
N002 Upheaval Buckling verification Shore Approach
Installation Studies N, O

C A, K

A, E D, N, O
N109
Lateral Buckling verification
N116
Crossing
L
C L

N118
Weld Repair Length N110
N105 A
M, N Pipe Walking verification
On-Bottom Stability Analysis
C

FC01
L
Completed

N106
Thermo-hydraulic

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Flow Assurance
• Pipe diameter determined by
– Assessing pressure (and temperature) loss for the design
flowrate
– Pipeline length
– Balance with available pressure
• Pipe diameter usually sized to API 5L
– Cost
– Procurement (availability)
• Pipe diameter will influence installation method
– Reeling/plastic bending, e.g.
- Up to 12” – Reel lay
- Some vessels can install up to 16” and 18”
– Larger diameter -S-lay or J-lay

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Routing
• The routing of pipeline needs to consider
– Approach to platform (risers) / subsea structure
– Political / regulatory restrictions
– Environmental issues
– Seabed topography (avoid freespans, rocks)
– Seismic (landslide)
– Pipelay restrictions (shallow water, straight lengths before to start
a curve, curves radius)
– Exclusion zones (military areas, FPSO anchors, distance to existing
or planned facilities …)
– Crossing angles with existing pipelines or cables

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Introduction – Pipeline Routing
• Geohazards

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Introduction – Pipeline Routing

• Avoiding seabed • Limited lay corridor due to

features topography and other pipelines

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Introduction – Pipeline Routing

• Platform approach

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Introduction – Pipeline Routing
• Pipelines may be laid in a curve
– The radius of the curve needs to be assessed carefully to
avoid pipe being dragged under bottom tension
– “Hobbs” formula is used to determine the minimum curve
radius

R=(F/W* m)*SF

R - Curve radius
F - Dynamic bottom tension in pipeline
W - Submerged weight of pipeline
m - Seabed friction factor
SF - Safety Factor

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Introduction – Pipeline Strength (Wall Thickness)
• A pipeline needs to be strong enough to withstand all the
loads that will be applied to it during installation, testing
and operation

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Strength (Wall Thickness)
• Internal pressure
– Internal pressure will create a hoop (circumferential) stress in
the pipe
– If the wall thickness is wrongly designed and internal pressure
in the pipeline becomes too large the pipeline will BURST

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Strength (Wall Thickness)
• External Pressure (may lead to pipe collapse)
– A perfectly round pipe will remain circular until the external
pressure reaches the elastic critical pressure
– Ovality
- Pipes are not perfectly circular (manufacturing ovality)
- Bending will increase pipe ovality
- Ovality has a large impact on the collapse pressure
- The greater the ovality the lower is the resistance to
collapse
– Design equations calculate collapse for a given ovality
– External pressure will normally only be a design criteria for
pipelines in very deep water (1000m and more).

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Strength (Wall Thickness)
• External Pressure
– If a buckle is formed it may
propagate along the pipeline
– Usually buckle propagation pressure
Ppr < collapse pressure Pc
– Therefore it is more economical
to design a pipe on collapse pressure than
propagation pressure, but
– There will be a need to fit thicker
pipe joints or buckle arrestors at
regular intervals to isolate any
buckled sections

Buckle Arrestor
on Reel Ship
18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Strength (Wall Thickness)
• Longitudinal stress
– Due to temperature and pressure the pipeline will carry
longitudinal stress
– The temperature will cause the pipeline to expand axially
– Due to Poisson effect the internal pressure will cause the
pipeline to expand circumferentially and contract axially

• The combination of these effects will then give the total

longitudinal stress

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Strength (Wall Thickness)
• Bending stress
– Due to bending of the pipe during installation the pipeline will
experience bending stress
– The pipeline can withstand bending beyond the elastic limit if
the bending is controlled (e.g. reel lay)

• Combination of bending stress, ovality and external

pressure are checked to avoid pipe buckling

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Strength (Wall Thickness)
– Calculated wall thickness can be minimum (DNV) or nominal
(API)
– Nominal wall thickness is obtained by adding
- Corrosion allowance (only for operation phase)
- Wall thickness tolerance (if minimum thickness was
calculated)
– Final value of nominal wall thickness is nearest higher API std
size (in general)

Actual thickness
tfab(+)
tfab(+)
tfab(-)
tfab(-)
tcorr Nearest
standard
tnom tnom
tmin

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipes Manufacturing (1/2)
• UOE (SAW)
– Large diameter pipes (> 16”)
– Mainly for trunklines applications
– Mostly CPI (Company Provided Items) from oil companies
– Can represent up to 35% of total project cost

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipes manufacturing (2/2)
• Seamless
– For smaller and medium-size flowline and infield pipelines
– Depends on client (CPI or EPIC)

• Future
– Some oil companies expected to use more EPIC contracts

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Insulation
• Insulation requirements depend on keeping the pipeline
contents above the critical hydrate and wax formation
temperatures:
a) during normal operation
b) for a minimum specified cool-down
period following a shutdown of the facilities
• Typical pipe insulation systems are based around:
a) Solid PP/PE/PU systems (low insulation, U > 4W/m2K)
b) Foam or syntactic based (PP or PU) systems (medium insulation
2.5 < U < 4 W/m2K)
c) Pipe-in-Pipe systems (high insulation, U < 2.5 W/m2K)

18-Jun-
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Introduction – Pipeline Insulation
• Effect of insulation on thermal profile:

Insulation (U=3W/m²K)
No Insulation (U=100W/m²K)

18-Jun-
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Introduction – On-Bottom Stability
• A pipeline on the seabed will be subject to loads from
waves and currents
• The water depth, weight of pipe, friction of soil, pipe and
content weight will influence the stability

18-Jun-
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Introduction – On-Bottom Stability
• Hydrodynamic forces
– Drag force
- Viscous drag from flow separation
- Acts in direction of flow
– Inertia force
- Fluid acceleration around body
- Fluid acceleration in far flow
- Acts in direction of flow acceleration
– Lift force
- Separation of flow
- Acts upwards away from seabed

18-Jun-
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Introduction – On-Bottom Stability
• Depending on the content of the pipeline the submerged
weight will vary from installation to operation
• Typical three content weights need to be considered
– Empty / air filled during installation
– Flooded with water during installation and before testing
– Operational fluid weight in operation
• The specific gravity (SG) of the submerged pipeline needs
to be checked
– SG>1.1 to satisfy code
– SG>= 1.6 (Acergy criteria) for trenching

18-Jun-
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Introduction – On-Bottom Stability
• Shore approach specificities
– In the trench area, the current can been reduced to diminish
the conservatism:

Cofferdam
Natural seabed

Trenched seabed

– considering flow conservation we have:

18-Jun-
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Introduction – On-Bottom Stability
• More accurate data is used:
pipe and waves heading considered,
shoaling and refraction considered
as closer to the beach

18-Jun-
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Introduction – On-Bottom Stability
• To ensure pipe stability
– Guidelines are given in DNV RP F109.
– Another commonly used tool is PRCI (AGA) software.
– Add weight, e.g. concrete coating or thicker wall
– Cover the pipe, e.g. rock dump, mattresses
– Trench the pipeline

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – On-Bottom Stability

N106
Thermo-hydraulic

FC 01
M Pipeline design

A, K N101
Route Selection
A, B, N

A, E, K
J
F N102
Wall Thickness dimensioning

N107 N103 A, B, J, K N112

N111 Anti-Corrosion Coating Selection
& dimensioning
Dropped Object Protection
Thermal Expansion
Cathodic Protection L
Dimensioning
N104
Flow Assurance

D N105
On-Bottom Stability Analysis
A

N113
L N117 N108 N106
L N112
Dropped Object Protection
Dimensioning
Allowable Free Spans A
Pipe Stacking Height Thermo-hydraulic

N, O Upheaval Buckling
M
verification N113
Allowable Free Spans
A, K
J
F
A
N107

C N111
Cathodic Protection
Thermal Expansion N114
Bottom Roughness
N114
A, B,
C, F Bottom Roughness H
L
D G

N115
G H

N108
N002 Upheaval Buckling verification Shore Approach
Installation Studies N, O

C A, K
N109 N116
A, E D, N, O Lateral Buckling verification Crossing

C L

N118
Weld Repair Length N110
M, N Pipe Walking verification

FC01
Completed

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Corrosion Protection
• Two types of corrosion, internal and external corrosion:

 Internal corrosion is caused by the fluid transported

 External corrosion is caused by the pipeline being in contact
with seawater

• In order to mitigate these types of corrosion one needs to do a

Corrosion Protection Design

• Internal corrosion can be reduced / avoided by:

 C-Mn Steel with corrosion allowance (few mms) together with

corrosion inhibitor is used wherever possible (cheapest)

 Use of CRA (for very corrosive service)

 Use of internal coating / liner (Clad or Plastic liner)

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Corrosion Protection
• External corrosion can be reduced / avoided by:
– Anti-corrosion coating (PE, PP, FBE…)
– Cathodic protection (bracelet anodes)
• Anti-corrosion coating
– Driving parameters
- Design temperature
- Installation method (Roughness in S-lay)
- Weight or insulation coating presence

• Sacrificial anode
– Anode provides electrons and corrodes; cathode (pipe) is
protected
– Installed with regular spacing along the line
– Thickness adjusted to concrete coating thickness
– If no concrete or anode thicker than concrete: tapers

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Pipeline Expansion
• Pipelines can be hot (fluid temperature)
• Pipelines can have high internal pressure (fluid pressure)
• Hot, pressurised pipes expand
• Pipelines will have an anchor point in the middle

•Axial expansion will need to be accommodated at the ends (spool,

flexible tail, sliding structure)

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Pipeline Expansion

Where is the highest expansion?

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Jumper and Spool Design
• Operational & installation constraints
• Pipeline expansion to be accommodated without exceeding allowable stress criteria or
imposing unacceptable loadings on adjacent structures (& end connection if not welded:
Flange, connector, connector running tool)
• Subsea structures & pipeline misalignment tolerances (angular and position)
• Metrology & Fabrication tolerances
• Subsea structures settlement
• Installation constraints dictated by the selected vessel (deck layout or lift capability)
• Other factors which can influence spool design include the method of installation: diver
or ROV connection

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Jumper and Spool Design
• Many load cases, many parameters which can govern the design => can lead to strong
design evolution during the project

PLET
(Pa)
0.54 m PLEMPLEM
12 m 15A 15A
PLET

12 m 2.64
1.6 m 2.5
m
m
12 m 24 m 9.5
9m m
Z
(Pa)
12 m

Z X Y
6m

X Y

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Jumper and Spool Design

0.28m EXPANSION

2.5m EXPANSION

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Jumper and Spool Design

Davits
Crane

0.04m EXPANSION

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Impact Protection
• Pipelines can be hit by
– Dropped objects
– Trawling gear
– Anchors
• Pipelines can withstand impact but up to a certain level
• Denting damage if it occurs will be evaluated from impact
energy
• Protection may be by
– Trenching and backfill
or rock dump
– Concrete mattresses,
tunnels
– Thick coatings

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Impact Protection

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Free Span
• A pipeline laid on an uneven seabed will span across low points
• Free spans can also develop due to scouring, movement of soil
• Riser spans in-between clamps
• Jumpers

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Free Span
• Issues with free spans
– Bending due to hydrodynamic loads and self weight
– Global buckling due to axial compressive loads (from temperature and
pressure)
– Fatigue due to vortex induced vibrations (VIVs)
– Snag risks by fishing gears (e.g. North Sea)
• Maintaining static bending stresses within allowable limits
• Avoidance of “bar buckling” (Euler buckling) due to axial
compressive load
• Avoiding the onset of excessive vortex excited vibrations causing
accelerated fatigue damage

Flow In-line vibrations

Flow Cross flow vibrations

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Free Span

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Free Span
• Free-spans can be identified
using in-place analyses
• The in-place analysis will provide
the engineer with information
about where free-spans occur
and how the pipeline behaves at
critical locations

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Free Span
• Typical allowable span lengths are between 1 & 2 times the pipe
diameter (expressed in inches) in meters:
– For 10”pipe: span length eventually between 10 & 20 meters
– For 24”pipe: span length eventually between 25 & 50 meters
– It is important to evaluate the allowable span individually using
guidelines given in DNV RP F105.
– Allowable free span can be optimised further by performing modal
analysis.

• Freespans might require seabed intervention

TRENCHING ROCK DUMPING SPAN SUPPORT

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design
A
N107
Thermal Expansion N114
Bottom Roughness
FC 01
Pipeline design

N101 A, B, N

A, E, K
Route Selection
D G H
N102
Wall Thickness dimensioning

L N108 N115
N103
Anti-Corrosion Coating Selection
A, B, J, K
Upheaval Buckling verification Shore Approach
& dimensioning

L N, O
N104
Flow Assurance

N105
L

A C A, K
On-Bottom Stability Analysis

L N112
Dropped Object Protection
N109 N116
N117
Pipe Stacking Height
N106
Thermo-hydraulic
Dimensioning
D, N, O Lateral Buckling verification Crossing
M N113
A, K Allowable Free Spans
J
F
A
N107

A, B,
N111
Cathodic Protection
Thermal Expansion N114
Bottom Roughness
C L
C, F
D G H
L
N108 N115
N002 Upheaval Buckling verification Shore Approach
Installation Studies N, O
N110
A, K
C
N109 N116
M, N Pipe Walking verification
A, E D, N, O Lateral Buckling verification Crossing

C L

N118
Weld Repair Length
M, N
N110
Pipe Walking verification
C
C

FC01
Completed

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Buckling / Walking
• Buckling is the process by which the compression force in an
operating pipeline is released through global buckling in the lateral
(or vertical) plane.
• Pipeline Walking is the process by which a pipeline incrementally
migrates on the seabed with each operating cycle applied. (700++
thermal cycles on Pazflor)

• Although these two phenomenon are independent, they share the

same main driving parameters:

OPERATING CONDITIONS PIPE SOIL INTERACTION "LONG" OR "SHORT" PIPELINE

240

Content Pressure

60 235

Content Temperature

230
55
Pressure (bar)

225
Temperature (°C)

50

45

40
T P 220

215

210

35
205
-300 200 700 1200 1700 2200 2700 3200 3700 4200 4700 5200 5700
-300 200 700 1200 1700 2200 2700 3200 3700 4200 4700 5200 5700
Kp (m)
Kp (m)

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Buckling
• Description
– Applied temperature and pressure in operation (and hydrotest) lead to the axial
expansion of an unrestrained pipeline.
– The pipe / soil interaction creates a resistance to this expansion, due to friction.
– A compression force appears in the pipe, that builds up away from the ends of the
line.
– This compression force may be released laterally or vertically through buckling of
the pipeline.
– Buckling will occur preferably at locations of vertical or lateral imperfection.
– Buckling can be critical with regards to pipe fatigue and structure integrity.

DRIVING FORCES

S  m axial .W .x S 0   E. As . .T  Pi . Ai .(1  2. )  Slay S  m axial .W .x

COMPRESSION

PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Buckling
• Driving force: the Effective Axial Force

Virtual Anchor Points

S0

Buckle 2
Buckle 1
0
Position along pipeline

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Buckling
• Axial and lateral soil resistance
– Buckling susceptibility check
• high axial soil friction high risk of buckling
• high lateral soil friction small risk of buckling

– Buckling criticality (once buckle has initiated)

• high axial soil friction small pipeline feed-in, small lateral deformation
• high lateral soil friction small buckle wavelength, sharp lateral deformation

Safebuck Critical buckling force - Max lateral friction

Safebuck Critical buckling force - Min lateral friction

Effective Axial force - Max axial friction

Effective Axial force - Min axial friction

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Upheaval Buckling (UHB)
• Buckling force depends on
– Imperfection height
– Imperfection shape
• Can cause over-stressing of pipe.
A buckle will be exposed to hydrodynamic
loads and impact from objects
• Will be mitigated by dumping rock on top
of the imperfection (download on pipe)
• Exact cover requirements assessed after
installation
• OOS survey
– ROV
– Pipetracker
– Inertial pig survey

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Lateral Buckling

• Uncontrolled buckling shapes may

damage pipe/coating/FJC and
decrease fatigue life
• These events may create Leaks/Cold
spots/Corrosion/Cracks  STOP
PRODUCTION !!

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Lateral Buckling Mitigation Options

18-Jun-
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 Pipe Design – Walking
Condition: Root causes:
"SHORT" PIPELINE STEEPNESS OF THERMAL TRANSIENTS
TENSION APPLIED BY SCR

T top

T bottom

SEABED SLOPE
g

PIPELINE WALKING PIPELINE INTEGRITY

LEADS TO
OVER- STRESSED
SPOOL /
STRUCTURE

STRUCTURE
NON
REVERSIBLE
PIPELINE
WALKING

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Walking

THERMAL TRANSIENTS

HEAT-UP COOL-DOWN

Hot End A 0. 0. B 0. 0. Cold End

2 4 6 8

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Walking
• Walking due to thermal transient
Comp

1. In operation, the line is in compression

Tens

Comp
2. During shut-down, the line becomes tensioned
Tens

3. During hot oiling, one end of the line becomes hot and tries to
Comp
expand, while the next part of the line is still in tension. The hot
part expands preferably towards the still cold part, rather than
towards the free end Tens

Comp
4. When the line has reached steady state temperature, it is fully in
compression again
Tens

5. At the next shut-down, the line does not go back to its original
Comp

position.
Tens

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Pipe Design – Walking

SEABED SLOPE

WALKING RATE

EFFECTIVE AXIAL
FORCE
CATENARY LENGTH

mP cos   P sin 
mP cos   P sin 

OPERATION OPERATION OPERATION

START-UP SHUT-DOWN AFTER ‘N’ CYCLES

18-Jun-
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Pipe Design – Walking

STEEL CATENARY RISER

T
WALKING RATE

EFFECTIVE AXIAL FORCE

T

CATENARY LENGTH

WALKING RATE

OPERATION OPERATION
START-UP SHUT-DOWN

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Pipe Design – Walking Mitigation

Short Flowlines have tendency for walking (Natural Slope,

Tension from Rigid Risers, Nature and Number of shut-down
Cycles and Temperature Gradient)
• FE based analysis to estimate the walking tendency and the
restraining force required to prevent walking
• Pipeline may have to be restrained at one or both the ends
if the walking over life span is not acceptable.

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Pipe Design – Pipeline Crossing
• Occasionally pipeline would need to cross existing pipelines, cables
etc.
• Crossings needs to be planned and designed: installation campaign
for crossing preparation before pipe installation!

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Pipe Design -Pipeline Crossing
• Multiple Crossing design

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 Pipe Design -Pipeline Crossing

• Critical importance of Survey (soil parameters)

 Bearing capacity
 Short term & long term settlements

Load due to Load due to

SAND supports supports CLAY

Water Water
directly progressively
drained out of drained out of
the block the block

 Due to Sand high permeability, no Long term  Short term and Long term settlement shall be
settlement assessed
 Only Short term settlement shall be assessed

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Pipe Design -Pipeline Crossing

Pipe joint solution

Sleepers / Stoppers
Mattresses: concrete blocks
lied by ropes

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Pipe Design -Pipeline Crossing
• Do not forget reality in the design! (tolerances etc)

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19
Pipe Design - Fatigue
• Usually fatigue (allowable damage) due to installation
represents a small percentage of allowable fatigue during
pipe design life
• Different allowable damage values may be given for
different KPs for post installation (e.g. Ormen Lange MEG
line)
– Pipe on flat seabed (“generous” allowable damage)
– Pipe on free span (tight allowable damage)
- Maximum allowable span length must be determined
- Span may need to be rectified if too long (trenching or rock
dump)

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Pipe Design - Fatigue
• Fatigue can occur during installation and operational phases
• The weld is the critical part
• Small cracks in the weld will grow due to stress cycles
• Free-spanning pipelines will be susceptible to fatigue damage
• Jumpers & spools will be susceptible to fatigue damage

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19
Pipe Design - ECA
• Tearing of initial weld defect during spooling and reeling
stages of pipe on the vessel
• Crack growth due to high cycle fatigue during installation
• Crack growth due to high cycle fatigue under operating
conditions associated with VIV of free span.
• Crack growth due to high cycle fatigue under operating
conditions associated with lateral buckling.
• ECA is performed as per guide lines given in BS 7910.

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Pipe Design - Summary
A typical design should consider the capacity of the pipeline with regards to the following:
• Corrosion (internal/External)
• Material Selection
• Flow Assurance
• Wall thickness (Pressure containment/External Collapse etc)
• Pipeline Routing
• On-bottom stability
• Allowable free span
• On-bottom roughness
• Upheaval buckling of buried pipelines
• Lateral buckling of surface laid pipelines
• Pipeline walking of short pipelines
• Trawl gear interaction analysis
• Crossing analysis
• End expansion and Spool/Jumper design

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 Onshore pipeline design

10.01.11 Page 76
Important Considerations

• Less rigorous in terms of design than subsea pipelines

• More rigorous in terms of clearances from various
government agencies
• Installation is easier and less expensive than subsea
pipelines
• Environment is less severe than subsea pipelines
 TYPICAL SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM
FOR ONSHORE PIPELINE SYSTEM
FROM

REFINERY/

STORAGE

DEPOT

TYPE ORIGINATING DELIVERY PUMP STATION-CUM- TERMINAL

PUMP STATION DELIVERY STATION
STATION STATION

LEGEND

PUMPING UNIT (OPERATING) SCRAPER BARREL

VALVE
VALVES

PUMPING UNIT (STANDBY)

TANK FARM
Design Considerations

• Hoop Stress criteria for internal pressure

• Road and Rail crossing
• River and water body crossing
• Stability in submerged area as a result of floatation
• Flow Assurance
 FLOW THROUGH PIPELINES
SDH/MAOP
Q

A B

DISTANCE 0 L
ELEVATION H’
H”
RH - h
ENERGY EQUATION :
• REQUREMENT : Q = FLOW, CU.M./HR, MMTPA
• STATION DISCHARGE HEAD (MCL) = f X L + (H” - H’ ) +
h
 FLOW THROUGH PIPELINES
(CONTD.)
 REYNOLDS NUMBER

REYNOLDS NUMBER IS CALCULATED FOR USE IN THE

FRICTION FACTOR CORRELATION. THE FUNDAMENTAL
DEFINITION IS:

Re = vD/Z

WHERE v = FLUID VELOCITY (M/SEC)

D = INSIDE PIPE DIAMETER (M)

Z = KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (M2/SEC)

WHEN Re < 4000, FLOW IS SAID TO BE LAMINAR

WHEN Re > 4000, FLOW IS TURBULENT

 PRESSURE LOSS IN THE PIPELINE
 PRESSURE LOSS FOR PRODUCT PIPELINES IS GIVEN BY
FORMULA
P = 6.38 * 108 * Q2 * f * s
‘f’ (FRICTION FACTOR) IS CALCULATED BY COLEBROOKE
FORMULA 1/f1/2 = 1.14 + 2 log10D/E - 2 log10[1+9.28/Re x
(E/D) f1/2], WHERE,
P : PRESSURE LOSS IN KG/SQ CM PER KM
Q : FLOW RATE IN CU.M./HR,
E : ABSOLUTE ROUGHNESS,MM s : SPECIFIC GRAVITY
D : INSIDE DIA OF PIPE IN MM Re : REYNOLDS
NUMBER
 PRESSURE LOSS FOR CRUDE OIL PIPELINES IS
CALCULATED BY MIT FORMULA GIVEN BELOW.
P = 0.241 fsQ2/D5
f = 0.0018 + 0.00662 (1/R)0.355
R = 0.0119Q/DZ, WHERE,
P : PRESSURE LOSS (PSI/MILE), f : FRICTION FACTOR
 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OPERATING PRESSURE
 MAOP = S x 2T x S.F.
D
 WHERE, S = YIELD STRENGTH; T= WALL THICKNESS (INCHES)
 D = DIAMETER OF PIPE (INCHES); S.F.= SAFETY FACTOR

(Design code for pipelines - ASM-B31.4)

No. OF PUMP STATIONS REQUIRED

 CALCULATE SDH REQUIRED AS PER ENERGY EQUATION
DISCUSSED ABOVE
 IF SDH REQUIRED > MAOP, MORE THAN ONE STATIONS
NECESSARY
DEPENDING ON VALUE OF SDH/MAOP, DETERMINE No. OF
STATIONS. ADJUSTMENT MAY BE REQUIRED DEPENDING ON
LOCATION

HORSE POWER REQUIREMENT

 B.H.P. = Q x H x s x 1000
75 x n1 x n2

WHERE, Q = FLOW RATE (CU M/SEC); H = STATION DISCHARGE

HEAD (M)
AUGMENTATION OF EXISTING PIPELINES

 CRUDE OIL PIPELINES

LOOP LINES

INTERMEDIATE PUMP STATIONS

COMBINATION

PRODUCT PIPELINES
INTERMEDIATE PUMP STATIONS
AUGMENTATION OF EXISTING PIPELINES
(CONTD.)
 BY LOOPLINES

Q Q/2 Q

Q/2

V=Q/A, i.e. V IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO Q

FL=FLV2/2GD, i.e. FL IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL
TO SQUARE OF VELOCITY
WITH LOOP LINES, VELOCITY REDUCES TO HALF, SO
OVERALL FRICTION LOSS FOR THE SYSTEM REDUCES
SIGNIFICANTLY. THIS ENABLES HIGHER FLOW RATE
AUGMENTATION OF EXISTING PIPELINES
(CONTD.)
 BY INTERMEDIATE PUMP STATIONS

SDH

Q1 Q2 Q3

Q1>Q2>Q3
 Shore Approach

10.01.11 Page 87
 Three Approaches to Shore Appproach
Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Agenda
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Dredging/Post Trenching

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19
 Soil Conditions
Bathymetry
Hypotheses
Pipeline Cover Requirement
Shallow Water Pipelay

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19
Hypotheses
Soil Conditions
• Soil description: based on data available in the ITT of
Vashishta (survey performed for G-1 project)
Hypotheses
Bathymetry
• Study bathymetry based on survey done for G-1 project
Hypotheses
Bathymetry
• Study bathymetry based on survey done for G-1 project
Hypotheses
Pipeline Cover Requirement
• Cover Requirement as per requirement from the ITT of
Vashishta
Pipeline Cover Requirement
Pipeline Cover Requirement
– Initial requirement of 2.5m depth of cover for typically the first
1000m from shore only
– Beyond 1km from shore: 0.5m DoC is enough, and the most
appropriate technique is post-trenching
Pipeline Cover Requirement
• Burial Risk Assessment :
– Fishing: beam trawling from international vessels,
– Marine traffic? Risk of anchor/chain impact?
Hypotheses
Shallow Water Pipelay
• Production estimate:
– 24” Gas Export pipeline (19.1mm WT): 180 SJ/day
– 6” Lean MEG flowline (11.0mm WT): 280 SJ/day
– 8” Rich MEG flowline (7.9mm WT): 280 SJ/day
– 6” Water Disposal flowline (7.1mm WT): 280 SJ/day

• Minimum WD to operate: 6m
 Execution Plan
Pre design
Landfall – Open
Dredging Works
Trench Scenario
Cost Estimate
Schedule

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Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Execution Plan

Cofferdam

Dredging

Post Trenching
Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Execution Plan
• Site preparation and facilities
• Install winch anchoring
• Install 250m cofferdam
• Cofferdam excavation (KP0-KP0.25): can be executed in parallel
with the marine trenching activities
• Marine trenching (KP0.25-KP0.5): with Backhoe Dredger (BHD).
Can be executed in parallel to the other marine trenching activities,
circa 25 000m3 to be excavated
• Marine trenching (KP0.5-KP1.0): with Trailing Suction Hopper
Dredger (TSHD), circa 50 000m3 to be excavated
• Trench maintenance between marine trenching and start pulling
• Pulling winch installation: can be started at every suitable point in
time, after installation of winch pad and anchor
– Deploy pull wire #1 to KP1.2 for 24” Gas Export
– Deploy pull wire #2 to KP1.2 for 8” Rich MEG
Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Execution Plan
1. Arrival of the Shallow Water Lay Barge for first pull:
– Pull 24”Gas Export from KP1.2 and lay from KP1.2 to KP2.5
– During lay, reposition winch to pulling wire #2
– During lay, re-deploy pull wire#1 to position for pulling 6” Lean MEG
2. Reposition SWLB at KP1.2 for second pull:
– Pull 8’’ Rich MEG from KP1.2 and lay from KP1.2 to KP2.5
– During lay, reposition winch to pulling wire #1
– During lay, re-deploy pull wire #2 to position for 6” Water Disposal
3. Reposition SWLB at KP1.2 for third pull:
– Pull 6’’ Lean MEG from KP1.2 and lay from KP1.2 to KP2.5
– During lay, reposition winch to pulling wire #2
4. Reposition SWLB at KP1.2 for fourth pull:
– Pull 6’’ Water Disposal from KP1.2 and lay from KP1.2 to KP2.5
– During lay demobilize winch
Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Pre design – Cofferdam
• Nominal spacing between pipelines: 3m
• Cofferdam dimensions:
– Width: 14m
– Length: 250m
• Water depth at cofferdam end: 4.5m
Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Pre design – Pulling winch
• 600t winch moored to an anchor wall
• Moved for each flowline
 Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Dredging Works at Shore Approach
• Volume to excavate : circa 75 000 m3
37.4m

2.5m cover
3.9m 3m 1/3

0.8m OD for the 24’’

0.6m overdredge
14m

• Dredging/trenching techniques: BHD+TSHD

BHD TSHD
Backfill ++ --

Weather - +

Speed - ++

Cofferdam ++ --

++ -
Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Cost Estimate

KPs Item Budget

KP0 Landfall preparation, 2.5 MUSD
pulling, site re-instatement

KP0 (0m WD) to Cofferdam 10 MUSD

KP0.25 (5m WD)

KP0.25 (5m WD) Open trench with BHD, 10 MUSD

to KP1.0 (6m WD) dredging and backfilling
with the excavated material

Total 22.5 MUSD +

PMT (20%)
 Landfall – Open Trench Scenario
Schedule

Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3
Duration OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP
Weather Window for Pipelay
Onshore Construction
Install Onshore Winch Anchorage for pipe pull 5d
Construct cofferdam 60d
Install onshore winch 5d
Dredging/Trenching
Excavation of the trench inside the cofferdam 21d
BHD dredging KP0.25-KP0.5 30d
TSHD dredging KP0.5-KP1.0 30d
 Pre design
Basic Durations
Landfall –
Execution Plan
Trenchless
Scenario Schedule
Cost Base and Preliminary
Estimate

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19
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Execution Plan

Cofferdam

Dredging

Post Trenching
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Execution Plan

HDD

Post Trenching
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Pre design – Horizontal Directional Drilling
• Preliminary design:
– Entry angle: 10°
– Exit angle with respect to horizontal: 4°
– Radius of curvature at entry and exit: 1000m
– Depth of the pipeline axis wrt the entry point: 25m
– Horizontal length of the drilled hole: 1050m
– Horizontal length of pipe string to be pulled: ~1200m
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Execution Plan
• Drilling philosophy:
1. Preparation of the entry platform
2. Set-up of the drilling spread
3. Drilling of the pilot hole
4. Punch-out offshore
5. Forward push reaming to the final diameter
6. Connection of the drill string to the ~1200m pipeline string
resting on the seafloor prepared by the SWLB
7. Pullback of the pipeline by the drilling rig
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Basic Durations – Horizontal Directional Drilling
• Drilling rig set-up: 2 days
• Pilot Hole: 5 days
• Reaming (1 pass): 4 days
• Pulling: 3 days
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Execution Plan
• Drilling:
– Two rigs mobilised to secure the schedule
– Pilot Hole: 5 days
– Reaming (1 pass): 4 days
– Pulling: 3 days
• Pipelay with SWLB:
– Position at exit hole: 1 day
– Fabricate and lay a pipe string of approx. 1200m: 2 days
– Abandon the pipe string: 1 day
– Reposition at another exit hole and repeat the operation
– Once a pipeline is pulled, SWLB relocate at exit hole, recover
the pipeline and continue pipelay to a certain distance
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Schedule – Horizontal Directional Drilling
24" GE 8" MEG 6" MEG 8" WD
Day Drilling SWLB Drilling SWLB Drilling SWLB Drilling SWLB
1 Rig Up Rig Up
2 rig 1 rig 2
3
4
5 Pilot Hole Pilot Hole
6
7
8 Position at KP1.1
9 Reaming Lay from KP1.1
10 1 pass to KP2.3
11 Abandon at KP2.3
12 Position at KP1.1
13 Lay from KP1.1 Pull Back
Reaming
14 to KP2.3
3 passes
15 Abandon at KP2.3 Rig Up
16 rig 2 Position at KP1.1
17 Lay from KP1.1
18 to KP2.3
19 Pilot Hole Abandon at KP2.3
20 Position at KP1.1
21 Lay from KP1.1
22 Pull Back to KP2.3
23 Abandon at KP2.3 Reaming
24 Position at KP1.2 Rig Up 1 pass
25 rig 1
26
27 Pull Back
28 Pilot Hole
29
30
Lay from KP1.2
31
to KPXX
32 Reaming
33 1 pass
34
35
36 Pull Back
37
Landfall – Trenchless Scenario
Cost Base and Preliminary Estimate
• Baltic Gas: 1 HDD for a 10’’ pipeline:

• Preliminary estimate: 7.5 MUSD rounded to 10 MUSD

 Scope of Work
Schedule
Dredging/Post
Cost Base and Preliminary
Trenching
Estimate
Pros & Cons

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Pipeline burial with dredging
Scope of Work
• From KP1 to KP14.5: 2.5m of cover requires 3.9m of
trench depth -> only achievable by dredging
• Soil in place cannot be reused for backfill, need for rock
dumping
• Volume to excavate: 1.35Mm3
• Dredging/trenching techniques:
– TSHD / CSD / SSDV / FPV
Dredging/Post Trenching
Cost Base and Preliminary Estimate
• Dredging/Rockdumping/Backfilling:
– Mob/Demob of TSHD, CSD, SSDV, FPV: 9MUSD
– Interm Mob/Demob of CSD/TSHD: 5.5MUSD
– Offshore trenching works: 14.6MUSD
– Installation of engineered backfill material: 46.2MUSD
– Offshore backfilling works: 12.7MUSD
– Dayrate:
• TSHD: 165kUSD/day
• CSD: 220kUSD/day
• FPV: 165kUSD/day
• SSDV:35kUSD/day

• Preliminary estimate: 88 MUSD

Pipeline burial with dredging
Schedule
Pipeline burial with Post-trenching

• Need to lower the burial requirement to 0.5m of cover

from KP1.0
• Jet-trenching
• 2 spreads: 6-10mWD / 10m-79mWD
Pipeline burial with Post-trenching

• Cost Estimate:
– Spread dayrate: 120kUSD/day
– Speed: 2.5km/day, 1 pass for 6’’ and 8’’, 2 passes for 24’’
– Approx 38days operating + 20% contingency
– Mob/demob: 2MUSD

– Preliminary cost estimate: 7.5MUSD rounded to 10MUSD

Dredging/Post Trenching
Pros & Cons
Dredging Trenching
(Pre Lay) (Post Lay)
Burial depth ++ --
Difficulty for the 24’’
SIMOPS/planning -- ++
BACKFILL -- ++
Mandatory for pipeline Narrow trench, No
protection need if no buckling
Pipeline On-Bottom + -
Stability Less CWC thickness required More CWC thickness
due to trench screen to required only for installation
current purpose
10.01.11 Page 123