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OXYGEN
*Planet Characteristics that
Support Life
Terrestrial
Silicate rocks
Rocks not accreted
to gaseous outer
layers
Gas Giants = no life
No surface
Enormous Gravity
*
*What is a mineral?
*A mineral is a naturally occurring,
inorganic solid with a definite chemical
composition and an orderly
arrangement of atoms.
* Mineral Characteristics
* naturally occurring
* inorganic
* solid
* definite chemical composition
* ordered internal structure
* Most common Elements in Earth’s Crust
Element Percentage of Earth's Crust
by Weight
Oxygen 46.6%
Silicon 27.72%
Aluminum 8.13%
Iron 5%
Calcium 3.63%
Sodium 2.83%
Potassium 2.7%
Magnesium 2.09%
Total 98.7%
*
*Hardness
*Luster
*Specific Gravity
*Streak
*Cleavage
*Fracture
*
*A measure of how easily a mineral
can be scratched. Talc is the softest
mineral and diamonds are the
hardest.
*Mohs Scale of Hardness- developed
by an Austrian scientist Friedrich
Mohs
*
Mohs Scale Hardness
Talc(softest) 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond(hardest) 10
*
*The way a mineral
reflects light.
*It can be metallic or
non metallic.
*
*It is the ratio of the weight
of a mineral sample
compared to the weight of
an equal volume of water.
*
*It is the color of a mineral when it is in a
powdered form.
*
*Minerals with cleavage break along
smooth, flat surfaces in one or more
directions.
*
*It describes any uneven manner
in which a mineral breaks.
*Types of Rocks
* There are three main types of rocks:
volcano
Magma
cools and
solidifies
forming
igneous
rocks
magma
* Sedimentary Rocks
* Sedimentary Rocks are
rocks formed when
particles of sediment
build up and are
Getting older
“cemented together” by
the effect of pressure and
minerals.
Fragments washed to the sea
Sedimentary
rocks
* Metamorphic Rocks
* Metamorphic rocks are formed by the
effect of heat and pressure on
existing rocks.
* This can greatly affect the hardness,
texture or layer patterns of the rocks.
Pressure from
surface rocks
metamorphic
rock
forming
here
Magma
heat
* Exogenic processes include geological
phenomena and processes that originate
externally to the Earth's surface. They are
genetically related to the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere, and therefore
to processes of weathering, erosion, mass
wasting, sedimentation
*
Weathering is the general term applied to the combined action of
all physical and chemical processes that disintegrate and decompose rocks
near Earth’s surface through the elements of weather. Weathering begins as
soon as rocks are exposed to one or more elements of weather on the surface
of Earth. It affects the rocks in place and no transport is involved.
a. Physical weathering happens whenever rocks are broken up without any
change in their chemical composition. Sometimes called mechanical
weathering, this type of weathering takes place in different ways, depending
on the surface that acts on the rocks. These factors include pressure, warm
temperature, water, and ice. Examples of physical weathering include block
disintegration, exfoliation, and frost weathering.
* Block disintegration is caused by successive heating and cooling that
causes the expansion and contraction of rocks. This repeated expansion and
contraction creates stress along the joints, eventually breaking. Down the
rock, block by block.
* Exfoliation is the stripping of the outer layers of rocks due to intense
heating. Exfoliation peels off outer layers of rocks which are immediately
affected by heat.
* Frost weathering refers to the alternate freezing and thawing of water
inside the joints of the rocks, causing them to split into small particles or
fragments.
b. Chemical weathering is the weakening or disintegration of
rocks and the formation of new compounds or new substances
caused by chemical reactions. Chemical processes include
oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation.
* Oxidation is the process in which oxygen reacts with the rock
and changes its mineral composition. The greatest impact of this
process is observed on ferrous minerals, which contain iron. The
oxygen in humid air reacts with iron in the rocks to form oxides
of iron called rust.
* Hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of substance when
combined with water. Therefore hydrolysis is break down of rock
due to reaction between rock and water. The most common
example of hydrolysis is feldspar which can be found in granite
changing to the clay. When it rains water seep down into the
ground and come into contact with granite rock. The feldspar
crystals within the granite reacts with the water and are
chemically altered to form clay minerals which weaken the rock
* Carbonation is the process of rock minerals reacting
with carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is formed when water
combines with carbon dioxide. Carbonic acid dissolves or breaks
down minerals in the rock.
c. Biotic weathering or biological weathering is
the weathering or disintegration of rocks caused by
living organisms. Plants contribute to both
mechanical and chemical weathering. Plant roots
can penetrate soil and break down rocks.
Burrowing animals, such as earthworms, converts
soil into smaller particles. Building houses can
sometimes speed up weathering.
*
Mass wasting refers to the downslope movement of rock,
regolith, and soil because of gravity. Mass wasting is a natural process
that occurs after weathering.
Based on the type of motion, mass wasting could be generally
classified as a fall, a slide, or a flow. The free-fall movement of
detached individual pieces of rock is called fall. Slides occur when rock
materials remain fairly coherent and move along a well-defined surface.
Flow happens when rock materials are saturated with water and move
downslope as a viscous fluid.
*
Erosion is the removal of surface material from Earth’s crust,
primarily soil and rock debris, and the transportation of the eroded materials
by natural agencies (such as water or wind) from the point of removal.
* Soil erosion refers to the removal of soil at a greater rate than its
replacement by natural agencies.
* Wind Erosion happens when winds carry large amount of fine soil
particles and sand away from a region, spreading it over adjoining
cultivated land and destroying their fetility. It takes place in and around all
desert regions of the world.
* Sheet erosion is the removal of thin layers of soil because of surface
runoff and rain. This type of erosion is common along the riverbeds and
areas affected by floods.
* Rill erosion is the removal of soil by the action of concentrated
running water. This process creates several centimetre-deep tiny channels
called rills, which carry water during storms.
* Gully erosion is the removal of soil in water channels or drainage
lines. The gullies gradually multiply and spread over a wide area. The land
being dissected is called badlands or ravines.
*
Sedimentation is the process of deposition of a
solid material from a state of suspension or solution in a
fluid (usually air or water). Broadly defined it also includes
deposits from glacial ice and those materials collected
under the impetus of gravity alone, as in talus deposits, or
accumulations of rock debris at the base of cliffs.
* Geologic processes that occur within the Earth.
*“Age of Bacteria”
* Oldest Era
* Longest era because we know so little about the earth that long
ago
* Life: Very little life: only basic forms including bacteria, the
oldest fossils ever found, seaweed, jellyfish, and worms
*the
Photosynthesis of the seaweed added oxygen to
early atmosphere, paving the way for land life.
*
One celled plants
(algae) entered the
fossil record
approximately 3
b.y. ago
(Precambrian).
145
*
Through photosynthesis, O2
was released into the
atmosphere and
ocean allowing
animals to eventually
evolve.
146
*
543 248
…until Dinosaurs
took over.
Archaeopteryx is
the oldest fossil
bird found to
date.
152
*
1. Volcanoes erupt 2. Meteorite
and fill the impact causes
atmosphere with
CO2 and gasses that multiple natural
BLOCK the sun light disasters
preventing plant
life…….
*
*Layer of Iridium
in rock layers
*Cenozoic
157
*Erosional Record
* Buried erosional surfaces, called unconformities, indicate gaps
or breaks in the geologic time record.
* 4 steps combine in sequence to form unconformities:
* Uplift, erosion, submergence and deposition
* 3 most common types of unconformities are: angular
unconformities, parallel unconformities, and nonconformities.
*Radioactive Decay
* Radioactive decay occurs when the nuclei of unstable atoms
break down, changing the original atoms into atoms of another
element.
* The rate of radioactive decay is measured in terms of half-life.
* Half-life is the amount of time it takes for half the atoms of a
substance to decay into another element.
* Different substances have different half-life’s
* Examples are Uranium 238 and Carbon 14.
*History and Evolution of
the Earth’s Atmosphere
* Earth is about 4.6 billion years old.
* The primary source of gases for the earliest atmosphere
are thought to be from outgassing by volcanoes.
* Water vapor in the outer atmosphere would have been
broken down into hydrogen and oxygen.
*
*Fossils preserved in the rocks provide
evidence that many kinds of animals
and plants have lived on Earth in the
past under a variety of different
conditions.
*Chapter 4
DANGER ZONE
*
*Earthquakes
*Volcanic Eruptions
*Landslides
*
Since 1968, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS), the government agency overlooking all
seismic and volcanic activities in the Philippines, have recorded
12 destructive earthwuakes. This is largely due the Philippine’s
location within the Pacific Ring of Fire.
The top 10 provinces that are at risk to Earthquakes include:
1.Surigao de Sur 6. Tarlac
2.La Union 7. Ifugao
3.Benguet 8. Davao Orietal
4.Pangasinan 9. Nueva Vizcaya
5.Pampanga 10. Nueva Ecija
*
When earthquakes occur, the shaking and rupture
are usually accompanied by other environment risks such
as landslides.
The top 10 provinces that are at risk to earthquake-
induced landslides include:
1.Ifugao 6. Bukidnon
2.Lanao Del Sur 7. Aurora
3.Sarangani 8. Davao del Sur
4.Benguet 9. Davao Oriental
5.Mountain Province 10. Rizal
*
The Philippines lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire. This
explains the distribution of most volcanoes in the Philippines.
The Mount Pinatubo eruption of 1991 was well known to be the
most violent eruption in the 20th century. There are 22
historically-active volcanoes distributed all over the Philippine
archipelago.
The top 10 provinces at risk for volcanic eruptions include:
1.Camiguin 6. Sorsogon
2.Sulu 7. South Cotabato
3.Biliran 8. Laguna
4.Albay 9. Camarines Sur
5.Bataan 10. Batanes
*