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THE OP-AMP

(OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER)
BY ENGR. JOEL T. MENDOZA
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (IC)
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (IC)
Typical IC Packages: Through Hole
Mount packages
Typical IC Packages: Surface Mount
packages
* Plastic Ball Grid Array Packages
Packages
* Quad Flat Packages
* Low Profile Fine Pitch
Ball Grid Array Package * Low Profile Quad Flat
Packages
* Dual In-Line Packages
* Through Hole Power
* Shrink Dual In-Line Packages
Packages
* Through Hole Medium
* Small Outline Packages Power Packages

* Shrink Small Outline * Heatslug Small Outline


Packages Packages

* Thin Shrink Small * Thin Quad Flat


Outline Packages Packages

* Plastic Leaded Carrier


Advantages of IC Technology
Compactness

High speed

Low power requirement

Reliability

Ease of maintenance

Modular construction
Limitations of IC Technology

Inductors are impractical

Cannot handle very high power


1 SCALE OF INTEGRATION

2 STRUCTURE

3 FUNCTIONS
SCALE OF INTEGRATION

SSI MSI LSI

The no. of ckts. The no. of ckts. Circuitry


Contained in an Per package is density
IC package is between 30-100 between 100-
less than 30 100 000
SCALE OF INTEGRATION

VLSI ULSI SLSI

Circuitry density No. of ckts. Per No. of ckts. Per


between 100 package is package is in
000-10 000 000 between 10 excess 1 billion
million-1 billion
Classification by STRUCTURE
Classification by STRUCTURE
Classification by STRUCTURE
Classification by FUNCTIONS

OP-AMPS Power

Microwave Multiplexers
Amplifier

Voltage Comparators Voltage


Regulators & etc.
Classification by FUNCTIONS
DIGITAL IC’s

•Used in Switching Circuits


•Monolithic Integration

Logic Flip Flops Counters Clock


Gates Chips
Classification by FUNCTIONS
DIGITAL IC’s

•Used in Switching Circuits


•Monolithic Integration

Calculator Memory Microproce


Chips Chips ssor
Monolithic IC’s Preparation

Oxidation

Epitaxial Growth
A thin layer of SI02 is
grown over the N type
Wafer Preparation An N-type Si layer is layer by exposing the
•A P-type Si bar (ingot) is taken grown on the P-type wafer to an oxygen
and cut into thin slices called substrate by the atmosphere at
wafers
•Czochralski Method is one of introduction of a gas 1000°C temperature
the most popular process in ingot containing
growth
•Wafers are thin sliced of a phosphorous at
semiconductor material either 1200°C temperature
circularly or rectangular in shape
in which a number of IC’s are
fabricated simultaneously
•These wafers are being tapped
and polished to mirror finish and
serve as the substrate for hundred
of IC’s
Monolithic IC’s Preparation

Base and Emitter


Diffusion

Isolation Diffusion
P-type base is
diffused into the N-
Photolithographic
Process Wafer is subjected to type which itself acts
•Involves the selective etching of a P-type diffusion as a collector
SiO2 with the help of process by which N-
photolithographic mask,
type layer is isolated
Types of Etching into islands on which
components are
1. Wet Etching- use of
fabricated
nitric (hydrofluoric
acid)

2. Dry Etching- use of


hot plasma gas
Monolithic IC’s Preparation

Circuit probing

Metallization
Each IC on the wafer is
checked electrically
Pre-Ohmic Etch Process involve in for proper
making performance by
•For food metal placing probes on the
interconnections and
contact with diffused bonding pads
providing bonding
layers, N+ regions are
pads around the
diffused into the
circumference of the
structure
chip
Monolithic IC’s Preparation

Encapsulation

Mounting and Packing


A cap is placed over
the circuit and sealing
Scribing and Separating
into Chips IC’s are cemented or is done in an inert
soldered to a gold- atmosphere
•Wafers are first
plated header through
scribed with a
which leads have
diamond tipped tool
already been
connected
•Wafer is broken
down into individual
chips containing the
integrated circuits
THE IDEAL OP-AMP
Historical Notes
 The concept of op-amps originated around 1947
 The first op-amps were vacuum tubes which later
became discrete circuits.
 In 1964, the first IC op-amp, called the 702, was
developed by Fairchild semiconductor.
 This was followed by μA709 and eventually by 741
which has become an industry standard
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

States that the differential input voltage is


zero meaning V+=V-. Simply shows that the
two inputs are shorted but actually not
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Pin Assignments

1 Offset null 1 8
2 Inverting input 7
2
3 Non inverting input
6
4 Negative supply 3

5 Offset null 4 5
6 Output

7 Positive supply

8 No connection
TYPES OF PACKAGING
A SIMPLE BIPOLAR
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL OP-
AMP
 Infinite Voltage Gain
(AOL )
 Infinite Bandwidth
 Infinite Input
Impedance (Open)
 Zero Output Impedance
The Internal Block Diagram of an Op-
Amp

1. Input stage (Differential amplifier ) – it provides amplification of


the difference voltage between the two inputs
2. Second stage (Voltage amplifiers) – they provide the very high
gain of the op amp Usually, these voltage amplifiers are Class A.
3. Output stage (Push-pull Amplifier) – usually class B push-pull
amplifier employing emitter follower configuration.
Op-amp Input Modes
The input signal mode of an op-amp is
determined by its input stage – the differential
amplifier.
Basically, there are two modes of operation:
1. Differential Mode
2. Common Mode
Differential Mode
1. Single-ended mode – the input signal is applied to
one of the two input terminals while the other input
is grounded
a. Inverting
b. Non-inverting
2. Double-ended Mode – two opposite polarity
signals are applied to the input terminals
Single-ended Differential Mode

non-inverting inverting
Double-ended Differential Mode

A single source is connected Two opposite polarity signals


between the two inputs are applied to the inputs
Common Mode
Two signal voltages having the same phase, frequency
and amplitude are applied to the inputs. These signals
tend to cancel each other resulting in a zero output. This
action is called common-mode rejection.
The Open-Loop Voltage Gain, AOL
 This is the gain of the op-amp when there are no
external components connected to it
 This is due to the internal design of the op-amp
 Can range up to 200,000 and is also referred to
as large signal voltage gain
Differential and Common-Mode
Operation
 Differential inputs  Opposite Polarity
Inputs
V  2A V
Vd  Vi 1  Vi2 o d s

 Common Inputs
Vc  12 (Vi1  Vi2 )  Same
V Polarity
 A V Inputs
o c s

 Output Voltage
Vo  AdVd  AcVc
Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

This is the measure of an amplifier’s ability to reject


common-mode signals. Mathematically,
Ad
CMRR  Ideal Practical
Ac Ad infinite Very high

Ad Ac Zero Very small


CMRR  20log
Ac
The higher the value of the CMRR, the better is the
op-amp’s ability to reject common-mode signals.
Op-Amp Parameters
1. Common-mode input voltage range VICR – the
range of input voltages which when applied to
both inputs will not cause distortion in the output;
typically: ±10 V
2. Maximum Output Voltage Swing, VOM – the
maximum peak to peak output voltage, limited by
the supply voltage
3. Input offset voltage, VIO – the differential dc
voltage required between the inputs to force the
output to zero; typically 2 mV or less
Op-Amp Parameters
4. Input Bias Current, IIB – dc current required by the
amplifier to properly operate the first stage (80
nA, 500 nA)

I1  I 2
I IB 
2
5. Input offset current, IIO – this is the difference
between the two input currents (20 – 200 nA)
I IO  I1  I 2
6. Input Impedance – can either be differential input
impedance or common-mode input impedance
7. Output resistance – the resistance viewed from the
output terminal of an op-amp
Op-amp input and output impedance

(c) op-amp output impedance


8. Slew rate – the maximum rate of change of the
output voltage in response to a step input voltage.
It is dependent on the HF response of the amplifier
stages within the op-amp.
Vout V
SlewRate  ,
t s
If the initial slope of the input exceeds the slew rate, distortion
occurs.
SR
fmax 
2 Vp
9. Frequency response – the change in the gain of
the op-amp as the frequency of the input signal
changes

The maximum signal frequency at which an op-


amp may operate depends on the bandwidth and
the slew rate
Comparison of op-amp parameters
Typical Op-Amp Characteristics

Quantity Symbol Ideal LM741C (BJT) LF157A (BiFET)


Voltage gain (OL) AOL infinite 100,000 200,000
Unity-gain frequency funity Infinite 1 MHz 25 MHz
Input resistance Rin Infinite 2 MΩ 1012 Ω
Output resistance Rout Zero 75 Ω 100 Ω
Input bias current IIB Zero 80 nA 30 pA
Input offset current IIO Zero 20 nA 3 pA
Input offset voltage VIO zero 2 mV 1 mV
Common-mode rejection ratio CMRR Infinite 90 dB 100 dB
Other Popular Op-Amps
» LM675 – high power (3 A, 25 W)
» LM12 – high power (10 A, 80 W)
» LM 318 – high-speed (SR = 70 V/μs, funity = 15 MHz)
» OP64E – high-speed (SR = 200 V/μs, funity = 200 MHz)
» LM747C – dual 741C (8 pins)
» LM348 – quad 741 (14 pins)
» LM324 – designed for a single power supply as low as
+5V
» OP07A – precision op-amp (VIO=25 μV, CMRR – 110
dB, PSRR = 100 dB, voltage drift = 0.6 μV/°C
Important features of Commercially
available op-amps
1. Circuit protection – keeps the circuit from being
damaged if the output becomes shorted
2. No latch-up – it prevents the op-amp from
hanging up in one output state under certain input
conditions
3. Input offset nulling – it sets the output to exactly
zero volts when the input is zero
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is a process whereby a
portion of the output is returned to the input with a
phase angle that opposes the input signal
Why use negative feedback?
 The very high open-loop gain of the op-amp drives
the device into saturation, making it nonlinear
 In order to be used as a linear amplifier, its voltage
gain must be reduced and controlled. This can be
done by employing negative feedback
 The gain of the op-amp with feedback is called the
closed-loop voltage gain
 In addition to stabilized voltage gain, the negative
feedback also provides for the control of input
impedance, output impedance and bandwidth
The Effects of Negative Feedback

Voltage Gain Input Z Output Z Bandwidth


Without Aol is too high Relatively high Relatively low Relatively
negative for linear narrow
Feedback amplifier
operations
With negative Acl can be set Can be Can be Significantly
feedback to the desired increased or reduced to a wider
value decreased desired value
depending on
the circuit
The Virtual Ground Concept
 An op-amp has a very If Vo is 10 V and Aol is
high open-loop gain, 200,000, then
typically several
hundred thousand. Vo 10V
Vd    50 V
 The op-amp’s output is Aol 200,000
limited by its supply
voltage, typically a Vd is practically equal to
few volts zero. Since Vd ≈ 0, there
exists a virtual ground at
Vo  AolVd the input of the
amplifier.
The Op-Amp Equation
If Vd is approximately equal to zero, then we can say
that the voltage across the inverting terminal is the
same as the voltage across the noninverting terminal.
This is called the ideal op-amp equation.

 
V V
The Inverting Amplifier
 Most commonly used constant
gain amplifier circuit.
 The input is applied to the
inverting terminal
 The noninverting terminal is
connected to ground.
The closed-loop gain is independent
 The feedback resistor connects of the op-amp’s internal open-loop
gain. It is determined by the external
to the inverting input. resistors and is given by
 The negative sign indicates Vo Rf
phase inversion. Av   
Vi Ri
The Noninverting Amplifier
 The input is applied to
the noninverting
terminal
 The feedback resistor
is again connected to
the inverting input
 The feedback resistor
forms a voltage
divider circuit with the  Rf 
input resistor. Av   1  
 Ri 
The Voltage Follower
 A special case of NINV
amplifier
 It has a gain of unity and has
no phase inversion
 There is a direct feedback
from the output to the input.
 It has a very high Zi and very
low Zo
Vo  Vi
 Commonly used as a buffer
amplifier for interfacing circuits Av  1
Effects of the Negative Feedback:
Inverting Amplifier
Input Impedance Output Impedance
Zi  (1   Aol )Zin Zout
Zo 

Ri 1   Aol
Ri  R f
 Zin is the open-loop input
impedance The output impedance of
 The Zi of NINV amplifier with a NINV with negative
negative feedback is much feedback is much less than
greater than the Zi of the op- the internal output
amp itself
impedance.
Effect of the Negative Feedback:
Voltage Follower
Input Impedance

The input impedance is


Zi  (1  Aol )Zin 
greater as compared to
the noninverting
Output Impedance amplifier

Zout The output impedance


Zo  
of much smaller as
1  Aol compared to the NINV
amplifier
Effect of the Negative Feedback:
Inverting Amplifier
Input Impedance

Zi  Zin  The input impedance is


simply equal to the
Output Impedance internal input resistance
due to virtual grouund
Zout
Zo 
1  Aol  The output impedance
of is decreased due to
the negative feedback
The Practical Op-Amp
All practical op-  The effect of the input bias
amps have non-ideal current can be
effects which give rise compensated by using
to small output error external resistors
voltages:  The input offset voltage
can be compensated by an
1. Input bias current external potentiometer
2. Input offset between the two offset null
voltage pins provided on the op
amp IC package
Input Bias Current Compensation for
Voltage Follower
Input Bias Current Compensation for
Inverting and NINV Amplifier
Input Offset Voltage Compensation for
741 Op-Amp
Open-Loop Response
Open – loop response is the response of the op-amp
with no external feedback
Frequency response – indicates the change in voltage
gain with changes in frequency
Phase response – indicates how the phase shift
between the input and output signal changes with
frequency
Frequency Response
 Op-amps are dc amplifiers, thus, they have no lower
critical (cut-off) frequency
 The op-amp’s critical frequency is the frequency at which
its gain becomes 70.7% of the midrange gain
 Above the critical frequency, the op-amp’s gain decreases
at the rate of 20 dB/decade or 6 dB/octave
 The decrease of the gain as the frequency increases is
called roll-off
 The frequency at which the gain becomes unity is called
the unity-gain frequency (gain bandwidth product).
Gain vs Frequency Plot of an
Op-Amp
Since it has no lower critical frequency, the
open-loop bandwidth of the op-amp is
simply equal to its upper critical frequency.

BW  fc
Open-loop voltage gain vs frequency of a
typical op-amp
 Above the critical frequency, the gain rolls-off at the rate of
20 dB/decade or 6 dB/octave
 The RC lag circuits within the op-amp are responsible for this
roll-off
RC Lag Circuit
 The attenuation of an RC
lag circuit is given by
Vout 1

Vin 1  f fc
2 2

 The open-loop voltage


gain is equal to
Aol (mid )
Aol 
2
1  f fc
2
Phase Shift
 An RC circuit causes phase  The phase shift, θ, is
shift between the input and
f
output signals    tan 1

 The RC lag circuits inside fc


the op-amp causes the  The phase shift increases
output signal voltage to lag with frequency and
the input signal voltage approaches –90° as f
increases above fc
Closed-loop response
 The negative feedback Closed-loop fc:
controls and stabilizes the
gain by reducing it fc(cl )  fc(ol ) (1  BAol (mid ) )
significantly
 This has an effect to the op- Since the BW = fc
amp’s bandwidth
 The effect is that negative BWcl  BWol (1  BAol (mid ) )
feedback effectively
increases the bandwidth of
Both the critical frequency and the
the op-amp
bandwidth is increased by a factor
equal to (1+BAol(mid))
Closed-loop gain vs the open-loop gain
Beyond the closed-loop critical frequency, the closed loop gain has the same roll-off
rate as the open-loop gain.
Op-Amp Circuits and Applications
 Comparators
 Summing amplifier
 Differentiators
 Integrators
Comparators
A comparators is a type of circuit that compares
two input voltages and produces an output in either of
two states indicating the greater than or less than
relationship of the input.
Comparators with positive feedback
 Comparators are prone to
noise.
 Hysteresis gives op-amp
noise immunity.
 Hysteresis is a characteristic
of a circuit in which two
different trigger levels
creates an offset or lag in
the switching action.
 A comparator with hysteresis
is called a Schmitt trigger.
A comparator with positive feedback
Summing Amplifier

A summing amplifier is an op-amp configuration


with two or more inputs that produces an output that is
proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its
input voltages.
Integrators
 An integrator is a circuit
that produces an output
which approximates the
area under the curve of the
input function
 The feedback element is a
capacitor that forms an RC
network with the input
resistor Vo Vi

 The rate of change in the t RC
output is proportional to the
input 1
vo (t )    vi (t )dt
RC
Input and Output Waveform of
Op-Amp Integrator
 Integration of a step input produces a ramp with a slope proportional to the amplitude.
 If the input is a pulse, the output is a triangular waveform.
Differentiator
 A differentiator is a circuit
that produces an output
which approximates the
rate of change of the input
function
 The feedback element is a
resistor while the input
element is a capacitor Vc
 The output of a Vo   RC
t
differentiator is
proportional to the rate of dvi (t )
change of the input vo (t )  RC
dt
Input and Output Waveform of an Op-
Amp Differentiator
 Differentiation of a ramp produces a step with an
amplitude proportional to the slope of the ramp.
 If the input is a series of triangular waveform, then the
output is a pulse.

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