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@Taken from the classical Greek words:
J
 
 

   
V
   
  
@    
 
  
@
  
 


 
  


 

 
  
  


|  
] is an academic and applied field involving
the study of behavior and its relationship
to the mind and brain.
] | also refers to the application
of such knowledge to various spheres of
human activity, including problems of
individuals' daily lives and the treatment of
mental illness.
|


] is largelyconcerned with humans,
although the behavior and mental
processes of animals is also be part of
psychological research, either as a
subject in its own right (e.g. animal
cognition and ethnology), or as a
] way of gaining an insight into human
 by means of comparison
(including comparative psychology).
 6
 6 
 
| 

^. Traditionally, psychology is said to
have began with man¶s earliest
speculations regarding human
nature.
B. The Greek Influence
à 
 (c. 460-370 BC)
believed that the human mind is
composed of atoms which could
circulate freely and which enabled
it to penetrate the whole body.
^ccording to | (c427-347BC) the mind or
soul is distinct in its own right and is God-
given. It enters the body with its reflected
perfection of God and rules the body which
it inhabits as knower, thinker and
determiner of action.
^ristotle (c 384-322 BC), a student of Plato,
distinguished three functions of the soul-the
è
è ,concerned with basic
maintenance of life; the
 è ,concerned with motives and
desires; and the 
the governing
function located in the heart. The brain
merely performs minor mechanical
processes as a gland.
Galen (^ c 130-200) contributed his
theory of the dependence of human
temperament on physiological
factors. ifferences in behavior is
attributable to the ³humors´ or vital
juices of the body: blood, phlegm,
black bile and yellow bile. Hence, he
correspondingly named
temperaments O
    


 O 

O
  
O  O 
For about fifteen centuries the
philosophy and science of the Greeks
held sway and dominated
psychological thinking.
 6


|
 
Yt. ^gustine (354-430) He introduced
and used the method of introspection
(the description of one¶s own
conscious processes) and manifested
his interest in distinguishing several
faculties of the soul as will,
memory,imagination and others,
producing the first definite
development of what later was called
faculty psychology.
^bout nine centuries later, Yt. Thomas
^
uinas (1226-1274) combined
aristotelian notions (mind is the form
of living matter) to the theologically
imperative idea of immortality.´
 |
 
|
 
|

Mene ecartes (1596-1650) formulated a

theory of mind-body interaction: John
Locke (1632-1704) in his ^OO
 
 O

introduced the ideas (which in their
own sum constitute mind) become the
only reality. avid Hume (1711-1776)
like Berkeley, wrestled with the
problem between impression and
ideas, between images and direct
sensations.
 |


differs from sociology, anthropology,
economics, and political science, in
part, because it involves studying the
behavior of individuals (alone or in
groups) rather than the behavior of the
groups or aggregates themselves.
Psychology differs from biology and
neuroscience in that it is primarily
concerned with the overall behavior of
a system, and not simply the pattern of
neural responses produced by the
system.
] ^lthough psychological
uestions
were asked in anti
uity (see ^ristotle's
à    O  or 
   ),
psychology emerged as a separate
discipline only recently. The first
person to call himself a
"psychologist", Wilhelm Wundt, a
German opened the first psychological
laboratory in 1879 at Leipzig,
Germany, which earned for Wundt the
title of Father of Ycientific
Psychology.
|

 
 
] William James, an ^merican philosopher who
played an active part in bringing the new
experimental psychology to the U.Y.
] Granville Ytanley Hall with James and in 1881,
established the first psychological research
laboratory at Johns Hopskins University, a
leading center of psychological research. He
pioneered in child study and wrote on child,
adolescent and senescent psychology. He
founded the first psychological journal 6 
^   O 
!""#He was
the first president of the ^merican Psychological
^ssociation in 1892.
] m.B. Tichener, an mnglish man who studied
with Wundt at Leipzig, moved to Cornel
University in 1892 and directed for 35 years its
newly-established psychological laboratory.
] James McKeen Cattell founded the
psychological laboratory at the University of
Pennsylvania in 1888 before going to
Columbia University in 1891. He started
mental testing movement and the study of
differential psychology in ^merica.
] Other ^merican pioneers include John ewey,
G.T. Ladd, J.M. Baldwin, O O$$

%
 O Mowland ^ngell and
Harvey ^. Carr.

|

 

] Phillippe Pinel and others began as early in

the nineteenth century the enlightened
psychological interpretation of insanity.
] ^nton Mesmer in 1779 developed hypnosis
or ³animal magnetism.´
] Yeguin (1848) made use of testing in the
teaching of mentally-retarded children.
] ^lfred Binet (1875-1911), the Father of
Intelligence Tests, started the first
intelligence tests.
 |

 

] Charles arwin published 

 %  O!"&'
] Yir Francis Galton studied individual
differences and evolved his
ingenious techni
ue of measurement.
Other leaders include Karl Pearson
(1857-1936) and Ypearman (1863-
1945), giving mngland a leadership
in the development of Ytatistical
methods.

 

 
] to the field include Hermann mbbinghaus (a
pioneer in studies on memory), the Mussian
Ivan Pavlov (who discovered the learning
process of classical conditioning), and the
^ustrian Yigmund Freud. Freud's influence
has been enormous, though more as cultural
icon than a force in (scientific) psychology.
Freud's basic theories postulated the
existence in humans of various unconscious
and instinctive "drives", and that the "self"
existed as a perpetual battle between the
desires and demands of the internal id, ego,
and superego
] The mid-20th century saw a rejection
of Freud's theories among many
psychologists as being too unscientific,
as well as a reaction against mdward
Titchener's abstract approach to the
mind. This led to the formulation of
behaviorism by John B. Watson, which
was popularized by B.F. Ykinner.

  

] epistemologically limiting psychological
study to overt behavior, since that could be

uantified and easily measured. Ycientific
knowledge of the "mind" was considered
too metaphysical, hence impossible to
achieve. The final decades of the 20th
century have seen the rise of a new
interdisciplinary approach to studying
human psychology, known collectively as
cognitive science.
   
 


A again considers the "mind" as a subject for

investigation, using the tools of evolutionary
psychology, linguistics, computer science,
philosophy, and neurobiology. This new form of
investigation has proposed that a wide
understanding of the human mind is possible, and
that such an understanding may be applied to
other research domains, such as artificial
intelligence.

| 

1. To describe behavior
2. To identify the factors that help predict
behavior
3. To understand or explain behavior by
identifying causes that bring about certain
effects
4. To control or change behavior
6




6
| 

] åarious schools of thought have argued for a
particular model to be used as a guiding theory by
which all, or the majority, of human behavior can
be explained. The popularity of these has waxed
and waned over time. Yome psychologists may
think of themselves as adherents to a particular
school of thought and reject the others, although
most consider each as an approach to
understanding the mind, and not necessarily as
mutually exclusive theories.
  

  
|


] 1. Y !"!
#$Y
Y

Y
|- the leader of this group was mdward
Bradford Titchener (1867-1927).
-Psychology was the study of conscious experience which
he broke down into its three basic elements:a.)physical
sensations, affections or feelings and images.
-The role of psychology was to reduce conscious processes
to their simplest and most basic components and
determine how they are combined & their laws of
combination.
-used introspection as their method of investigation.
]2. FUNCTION^LIYM A led by William
James. 
- concerned with the utility of how conscious
processes function in the adjustment of man to
his environment.
- It relied on experimentation for its method of
investigation.
- James believed psychology should focus on
true to life everyday experience.
] 3. GmYT^LT PY CHOLOG
- Founded by Max Werheimer in1912,
together with his associates: Wolfgang
Kohler and Kurt Koffka.
- They maintained that an understanding
of behavior depended on the perception
of the configuration ( 



 %
  
They believed that ³the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts.´
- In understanding behavior we need to
look at the totality of the organized
experience.
] 4. BmH^åIOMIYM (John B. Watson)
- He stressed the empirical approach, the
use of objective facts gathered through
actual observation of what an organism
does, not what he thinks.
- ^ccording to Watson, psychology should
study observable and measurable
behavior, not consciousness.
- Behaviorism stressed the
- importance of learning and the
environment.
] 5. PY CHO^N^L TIC
YCHOOL OF
PY CHOLOG
- Founded by Yigmund Freud,
based on the theory of
unconscious motivation and
its effects on human behavior.
- ^ccording to Freud¶s theory,
much of our behavior is
governed by hidden motives
and unconscious desires.
Î The FIåm mentioned schools of
psychology were most influential in
shaping the course of contemporary
psychology which is eclectic in its
approach.
 
 | 

] 1. COGNITIåm PY CHOLOG is
a combination of Y-M and Gestalt
approaches. It is a study of how
perception. Jean Piaget was one of
the leading cognitive psychologists.
@ The study of how we process, store,
retrieve, and use information and
how cognitive processes influence
what we attend to, perceive, learn,
remember, believe feel and do.
2. m
IYTmNTI^L PY CHOLOG is
concerned with the individual¶s discovery
of self-identity so that he can commit
himself, and care and love. It emphasizes
that existence takes precedence over
essence, that freedom of choice is
paramount over determination.
3. HUM^NIYTIC PY CHOLOG is a
protest movement against the
behavioristic emphasis on the study of
only overt behavior.
-They would like psychology to study
man as a distinct human being,
³uni
ue individual case´ instead of the
³average performance of groups.´ It
should focus on man¶s subjective
internal experiences, not on overt
behavior.
 6
6


| 

‰ &'  A freedom from bias and
prejudice. The investigator does not allow
his/her wishes or desires to influence his
findings or his/her interpretation of his
findings.
2. m%
 
 ( ^n investigator
describes in details, the procedure he
followed in his investigation so that other
investigator who wish to verify his findings
will find it easy to duplicate his study or
make a similar one.
3. Meport contains a description of the methods
used by the investigator, the results of the
investigation, the interpretation of the results,
and the conclusions.
4. mxperimental method- this is the most
scientific of all. It employs the comparison of
two groups of subjects. To rule out the
influence of variables that might significantly
influence the outcome of the experiment, he
e
uates these two groups
in these factors.
- The variable whose outcome the
experimenter is interested in investigating is
called the independent variable, while its
outcome is called the dependent variable, so
called because it depends on the
independent variable. To isolate the effects
of the factor under investigation it is applied
on one of the group (the experimental
group) but not on the other (control group)
m%
  Controlled
experiments. The majority of
 research is conducted in
the laboratory under controlled
conditions. This method of research relies
completely on the scientific method to
determine the basis of behavor.

A )





  
 
*  +   

 

 



 
5. Naturalistic Observation Observes behavior
in its natural setting, attempt to avoid
influencing or controlling it
^dvantage: Good way to collect normative
data.
isadvantage: Must wait for the behavior to
occur naturally
 " 
  are scientifically written
biographies done sometimes for the purpose of
(a) testing some theories, or (b)getting the
background of an individual as a basis for making
recommendations about him.
, Y
  A This method is used when the
investigator wants to investigate a larger group
within a shorter time through the use of

uestionnaire or interview, or both.
- "  studies human behavior by
reconstructing the life history of the individual on
the basis of all the information gathered.
 
 6
|
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1. mxperimental psychology- borders on ³pure´
research. It refers to the scientific methodology
by which behavioral processes are studied.
2. Comparative psychology investigates the
behavioral differences among different
organisms and species to discover similarities
and differences between animals and humans to
relate animal behavior with human behavior.
3. Physiological psychology studies human
being from a neurobiological viewpoint.
4. Yocial psychology is concerned with social
influences on the behavior of the individual.
5. evelopmental psychology focuses on the
various stages of development from the
prenatal period to old age.
6. mducational psychology deals with
psychological problems in the field of
education.
7. Psychology of personality
investigates the processes by
which a person becomes uni
ue
individual.
8. Psychometrics is highly
specialized field of psychology. It
is concerned with the procedures
for measuring and evaluating the
many psychological variables
which underlie and affect
behavior.
Õ
  |


1. Clinical psychology   

 
+
 

 
 

 
 " 
 


 

 
 


   
3. Ychool psychology deals with similar probles
in school situation. It is concerned with
enhancing effectiveness of educational
institutions.
4. Industrial psychology applies the methods
and findings of psychology in the solution of
problems related to the selecting and training
personnel.
5. Neuropsychology is the branch of
psychology that aims to understand
how the structure and function of the
brain relate to specific psychological
processes.
6. mngineering psychology is highly
specialized area which is concerned
with the development of man-machine
systems, that is, fitting man and
machine together such that both can
function most efficiently.
7. Consumer psychology is interested in
the study of psychological factors that
determine an individual¶s behavior as a
consumer.
8. Legal psychology involves the detection
of guilt, the determination of the
reliability of testimony in the court
room.
9. Parapsychology investigates all
psychological phenomenon that
apparently cannot be explained in terms
of natural scientific laws or principles.
7.Ú
  refers to any
application of psychological principles,
methods or understanding to legal

uestions or issues. In addition to the
applied practices, it also includes
academic or empirical research on
topics involving law and human
behavior.
 

] m
 
.
Chief proponent of structuralism. Used introspection to
tap human consciousness. Had troubles with
verification of data and replicability.

] )/ .
Founder of ^merican Functionalism. åiewed behavior
in terms of its adaptive value for the organism. Focused
on the flow of consciousness rather than its structure.
] John Watson - Founder of
Behaviorism. Confined psychology to
the study of observable stimuli &
behavior.
] B. F. Ykinner -mxtended behaviorism,
examined the effects of reinforcement
on behavior.
] Yigmund Freud -Founded
psychoanalysis, focused on
unconscious thoughts in determining
behavior.
 
|
 |
 
 

Biological perspective
A Focuses on the functioning of the genes, brain,
nervous system, and endocrine system
Psychodynamic perspective
A Behavior is explained in terms of past
experiences and motivational forces
Behaviorist perspective
A Primarily concerned with observable behavior
that can be objectively recorded
Humanistic perspective
A mmphasizes an individual¶s phenomenal world
and inherent capacity for making rational
choices and developing to maximum potential
 



Naturalistic Observation
Laboratory Observation
Case Ytudies
Yurveys
mxperiment
mxperiments of Nature
 

 
] &
  




%
 
  
 
      
]
 .0 

 

  

   
  
] à .Y

 




] Observe one or a very few subjects in great

depth, usually over a long period of
time
] ^dvantage: The only method appropriate
for very unusual cases

isadvantage: Problems with generalizing

the results



] Collect data from groups of people using

uestionnaires or interviews. ata
is useless unless sample is
representative.
] ^dvantage: Can collect information such as
attitudes and beliefs
] isadvantage: Yubjects may lie or mislead


 

Involve random assignment and controlled
manipulation
] Causal claims possible
] Independent variables manipulated by m
 ependent variables supposedly affected by
independent variables
] mxperimental groups get the different values of the
independent variables. Control groups do not.


 

Can make causal claims:
A Manipulation removes directionality
A Mandom assignment removes third variables
isadvantages:
A Mandom assignment sometimes impossible,
sometimes unethical
A Control can reduce validity


 
 

] Collect data on the presence of in

situations where
may be going to happen.
Wait for
to happen, and see if is
affected.
] ^dvantages: Not artificial. ^llows general
cause-effect judgments
] isadvantage: Ypecific causes can't be
determined





] Longitudinal Ytudies:
] Follow the same group across time to
determine age-related changes in thought
and behavior
] Cross-sectional Ytudies:
] ^ssess groups of differing ages, usually at
the same time

  

$
 " .

] Human subjects must be told of all.
foreseeable risks.
^nimals can't give informed consent, and must be
protected from unnecessary suffering
à  .
] Yome psychologists oppose all deception.
Others tolerate deception as long as it poses no
foreseeable risks and debriefing occurs.

  

*.
] In psychology, the standards for acceptable risk
must be very stringent, because potential benefits
for the participating subject are very low
"
.
] oung children may have difficulty giving
informed consent, due to a desire to obey and
please adults, plus a lack of understanding of
possible risks