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Methods
Supplement - 1
Glass Membrane Electrodes
• pH electrode • Ion Selective Field Effect
Transistor (ISFET) electrode
csrg.ch.pw.edu.pl/tutorials/isfet/
www.ph-meter.info
Spectroscopic Methods
http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/mapping/IMAGES/
Types of Interaction between EMR and Matter
• NMR (Radio frequency):
– Change of Spin – absorption on RF energy
• Microwave
– Change of Orientation
• Infrared
– Change of Configuration – rotational/vibrational
• UV/Vis
– Change in electronic structure
• X-rays
– Change in electronic structure
• Gamma Rays
– Change in nuclear configuration/mutation/isotopes
Instrumentation for Spectroscopy
Absorption Spectroscopy
Source Sample
Wavelength Detector Data
Selector Readout
Emission Spectroscopy
Sample
EMISSION Wavelength
Selector
EXCITATION
Source
Optical Materials
• Continuous Sources
– Xenon Arc Lamp – 250 – 600 nm
• Molecular Fluorescence
– Hydrogen or Deuterium Lamp – 180 – 380 nm
• UV Molecular Absorbance
– Tungsten/Halogen – 240 – 2500 nm
• UV/Vis/NIR – Molecular Absorbance
– Tungsten – 350 – 2200 nm
• Vis/NIR
– Nernst Glower – 400-20,000 nm
• IR – molecular absorbance
– Nichrome – 750 – 20,000 nm
– Globar – 1200 – 40,000 nm
– Tunable Dye Lasers
Sources
• Pulsed Sources
– Lasers (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
• Permits light of low divergence
• Well defined wavelength
• Low Energy and High Energy
• Nd: YAG Lasers
Wavelength Selectors
• Monochromator
– Czerny-Turner
– A – incident beam
– B – Entrance Slit
– C – Mirror 1
– D – Diffraction
Grating (Rotating)
• Blazed Grating
• Prism
• Concave
• Holographic
– E – Mirror 2
– F- Exit Slit
Image:
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/spectro.htm#contnt
Wavelength Selectors
From www.edmundoptics.com
UV Absorption Spectroscopy
• Transmittance, T = I / I0
• Absorbance, A = -log T
• Beer’s Law
– A = ε.L.C
– ε = absorption coefficient
– L = path length
– C = concentration of analyte
• Example Absorption
Spectra shown here
Image:
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/spectro.htm#contnt
UV Absorption Spectroscopy
Structural Features:
• Stretching or Bending Vibrations
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/spectro.htm#contnt
• Organic or Inorganic Bonds
IR Vibrational Spectroscopy
Formaldehyde – Gas Phase IR spectra
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/spectro.htm#contnt
IR Vibrational Spectroscopy
Typical Example of Infrared Absorption Frequencies
Stretching Vibrations Bending Vibrations
Intensit
Functional Class Range (cm-1) Intensity Assignment Range (cm-1) Assignment
y
Alkanes 2850-3000 str CH3, CH2 & CH 1350-1470 med CH2 & CH3 deformation
2 or 3 bands 1370-1390 med CH3 deformation
720-725 wk CH2 rocking
Alkenes 3020-3100 med =C-H & =CH2 (usually sharp) 880-995 str =C-H & =CH2
1630-1680 var C=C (symmetry reduces 780-850 med (out-of-plane bending)
intensity) 675-730 med cis-RCH=CHR
1900-2000 str
C=C asymmetric stretch
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/spectro.htm#contnt
Michelson Interferometer
http://www.biophysik.uni-freiburg.de/Spectroscopy/Time-Resolved/spectroscopy.html
IR Spectrophotometer
www.thermonicolet.com
Fourier Transform
FTIR
Processor
Absorption Spectra
Interferogram
http://www.biophysik.uni-freiburg.de/Spectroscopy/Time-Resolved/spectroscopy.html
NMR Spectroscopy
• Nuclei of elements have a characteristic spin – I
– Integral: e.g. 1,2,3… (# protons and # nuetron are odd)
– Half integral: e.g. ½, 3/2, 5/2…(#protons + # nuetrons are odd)
– Zero (#protons and #nuetrons are even)
• Spinning charge generates a small magnetic field resulting in a
magnetic moment
• In the presence of an external magnetic field, B0 , two spin
states exist, +1/2 and -1/2.
• The magnetic moment of the lower (+1/2) energy spin state is
aligned with the external magnetic field and that of the higher
(-1/2) is aligned in the opposite direction to B0.
Spin states (two energy) in external magnetic
field
No Magnetic
Field
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/nmr/nmr1.htm
Magnetic Fields
• Earth’s Magnetic field – 10-4 T (Tesla)
• Modern NMR instruments use magnetic fields 1 – 20 T.
• Even at high B0, the energy difference observed between the two spin
states is less than 0.1 cal/mole
– IR (1-10 cal/mole), Electronic transitions are 100 times higher
• Energy difference is expressed in terms of frequency in MHz
– Ranging from 20 – 900 MHz depending on the field and the molecule
• Irradiation of the sample with Radio Frequency energy corresponding to
this energy difference between the two spin states causes absorption and
excitation from the +1/2 to the -1/2 state.
• For ½ spin nuclei, the energy difference is proportional to their magnetic
moments at a given B
• Common nuclei used in NMR spectroscopy are
– 1H, 13C, 19F, 31P,
– Most common is the 1H NMR also referred to as Proton NMR.
Proton NMR Spectroscopy
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/spectro.htm#contnt
Proton NMR Spectroscopy
• Consider a sample of water
– External magnetic field B = 2.3487 T
– 100 MHz - radiation
• If B is increased slowly to 2.3488 T
– H nuclei will absorb RF energy and a resonance signal will
appear
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/spectro.htm#contnt
Chemical Shift
• Different H nuclei have different signals at different frequencies
– Electron density around a nucleus produce a magnetic field that opposes the
much stronger external field.
– This secondary field shields the nucleus from the external field
– To compensate for this shielding B must be increased to achieve resonance
– Scanning of B at a RF frequency produces a SHIFT
– Compounds that have higher electron density have the resonance at higher
energy frequencies
Chemical Shift
• The characteristic frequencies are dependent on the magnitude of B and the radio
frequency
• No two magnets have the same field and resonance frequencies vary accordingly
– Reference proton: TMS (Trimethylsilane)
– Shift is measured as shown below in terms of ppm
• Solvent – CDCl3
Chemical Shift
NMR Spectroscopy – examples
icpms.ucdavis.edu/InstrumentationQuad.html
ICP-MS
• Operates under Vacuum – 10-6 torr
• After ionization sample is introduced to the
analyzer zone through two orifices
– Skimmer cone
– Sampler cone
• Ion Optics
• Mass Analyzer
• Selection on the basis of Isotope (or
Mass/Charge ratio)
– Capable of isolating “isotopes”
• Very low detection limits.
ICP-MS – Mass Analyzer
• Ion Optics
– Focus the ions in a
barrow beam towards
the Mass Analyzer
• Mass Analyzer
– Quadrupole
– Allows only a certain
M/Z set to pass through
to the detector • Other Types of analysers
• Detector – Ion Trap
– PMT/Dynode – Time of Flight(TOF) MS
– Interferences
• Ar+, ArO+ , ArH+, H2O+,
Ar2+ or combination
• Same isotope
• Matrix effects
ICP-MS
• During analysis, the use of blank is important
since it accounts for contamination
– in the instrument (previous sample memory effects)
– the surroundings (cleanliness of the lab).
– For very sensitive (or low concentration) work, a clean
room (with very low particulate contamination) may be
required.
• Internal standard is recommended in all samples
(same amount in all samples, standards and
blanks)
– The internal standard should be an element that is not
present in the sample
– Selection of internal standard depends on the nature
of the analysis matrix