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Petroleum Geology

© Copyright 2003 Schlumberger. Unpublished work. All rights reserved. This work contains confidential and proprietary trade secrets of Schlumberger and may
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mechanical, in whole or part, without the express written permission of the copyright owner. 1
Outline
 Petroleum systems
 Geologic principles and geologic time
 Rock and minerals, rock cycle, reservoir
properties
 Hydrocarbon origin, migration and
accumulation
 Sedimentary environments; stratigraphic
traps
 Plate tectonics, structural geology
 Structural traps
 Geophysical methods
 Importance to Schlumberger
2
Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely convergence
of certain geologic factors and geologic events.

These Include:
Seal or cap rock
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock

3
Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play

R Reservoir

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential

Sedimentary
Elements Seal or Cap[Rock

Basin Fill
of Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (R)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)


4
Basic Geologic Principles
 Uniformitarianism - “The present is the key to
the past.”
 Original Horizonality - “Sedimentary layers are
deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal
position.”
 Superposition - “Younger sedimentary beds
occur on top of older beds, unless they have
been overturned or faulted.”
 Cross-Cutting Relations - “Any geologic feature
that cuts another geologic feature is younger
than the feature that it cuts.”

5
Cross-Cutting
Relationships
K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity
C
E
F
D Igneous
B
l Dike
s Sil
eou
Ign A

6
Mechanical
Layers:

1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesosphere

Fall 2003 EASA-123 Intro to Earthquakes Lecture-3 17

7
Geologic Time Chart
Eon Era Period Epoch

Quaternary
period
Quaternary Recent
0 0 0 Pleistocene
Billions of years ago

Millions of years ago


Phanerozoic Tertiary

Millions of years ago


Pliocene
50 10

Cenozoic Era
1
Miocene

Mesozoic
100 Cretaceous 20
(Precambrian)

Tertiary
period
Cryptozoic
2 150 Jurassic 30 Oligocene

200 Triassic 40
Eocene
3
250 Permian 50

4 300 Pennsylvanian
60 Paleocene
Mississippian
4.6 350
Paleozoic

Devonian
400
Silurian

450 Ordovician

500

550 Cambrian

600
8
Geologic Time Scale -
Biostratigraphy
Triassic period Permian period
Jurassic period
Pennsylvanian period
Mississippian period
245 m.y
323 m.y Devonian
146 m.y 208 m.y 290 m.y period
363 m.y
409 m.y
Silurian
439 m.y
65 m.y 1 b.y period
57 m.y 510 m.y 2 b.y
570 m.y Evolution
35 m.y
of cells with
23 m.y nucleus

5 m.y
3 b.y First
0.01 m.y fossil
4.6 billion cells

ERA years ago 4 b.y Oldest rocks


PERIOD dated on Earth
Holocene epoch EPOCH

9
Rocks

10
Classification of Rocks
IGNEOU SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
S
Rock-forming Source of

Rocks under high


material

Molten materials in Weathering and


temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust

Recrystallization due to
process

Crystallization Sedimentation, burial


heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids

11
The Rock Cycle

Magma
Co
g So oling
in (Cr lidi
ys fic a

lt
tal at

Me

nd
iza

io n)
n
t io
Metamorphic Heat and Pressure Igneous
Rock Rock
We
ath
rphism)

eri

And De
Transportaitng,
an ng, T
ure
And

Weat her
d D ran
ep
osi sport
Press
tamo
Heat

tion atio

p o
n,

s ition
ion
e

Weathering,
(M

Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment
Cem
entation and
Compaction
(Lithification)
12
Igneous Rocks
Comprise 95% of the Earth's crust.
Originated from the solidification of molten material
from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
•Volcanic - glassy in texture due to fast cooling.
•Plutonic - slow-cooling, crystalline rocks.

13
Igneous Rocks and

Reservoirs
Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs.
 Fractured granites form reservoirs in some parts of the
world.
 Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some reservoirs.

Example: Granite Wash - Elk City, Okla., Northern Alberta,CA 14


Metamorphic Rocks
 2) Metamorphic rocks
 formed by the action of temperature and/or pressure on
sedimentary or igneous rocks.

 Examples are
• Marble - formed from limestone
• Hornfels - from shale or tuff
• Gneiss - similar to granite but formed by metamorphosis

Field Example:
1. Point Arguello - Monterey Formation is actually layers of fractured Chert and Shale. Oil is in the fractures
2. Long Beach, Calif. - Many SS producers on an Anticline above fractured Metamorphic basement rock
3. Austin, TX eastward - Lava flows of Basalt (Serpentine) from Volcanoes in ancient Gulf of Mexico 15
Sedimentary Rocks
 These are the most important for the oil industry as it
contains most of the source rocks and cap rocks and a
majority of the reservoirs.
 Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of older rocks
and are split into two categories
 Clastic and Non-clastic.
• Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of older rocks by
the actions of erosion, transportation and deposition.
• Non-clastic rocks - from chemical or biological origin and
then deposition.

16
Rock Classification
Clastics
Rock type Particle diameter
 Conglomerate Pebbles 2 - 64mm
 Sandstone Sand .06 - 2mm
 Siltstone Silt .004 - .06mm or 4 to 65 microns
 Shale Clay < .004mm or 4 microns

Non-Clastics
Rock type Composition
 Limestone CaCO3
 Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
 Salt NaCl
 Anhydrite CaSO4
 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
 Coal Carbon

17
Sedimentary Rock Types
• Relative abundance
Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%

Limestone and
dolomite
~13%
Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%

18
Depositional Environments
 The depositional environment can be
 Shallow or deep water.
 Marine (sea) and lake or continental.
 This environment determines many of the
reservoir characteristics

Frigg Gas Field - North Sea

19
Depositional Environments
 Continental deposits are usually dunes.
 A shallow marine environment has a lot of turbulence hence varied
grain sizes. It can also have carbonate and evaporite formation.
 A deep marine environment produces fine sediments.

20
Depositional Environments
 The depositional characteristics of the rocks lead to
some of their properties and the reservoir property.
• The reservoir rock type clastic or non-clastic.
• The type of porosity (especially in carbonates) is
determined by the environment plus subsequent
events.
 The structure of a reservoir can also be determined
by deposition; a river, a delta, a reef etc.
 This can also lead to permeability and producibility
of these properties are often changed by further
events.

21
Clastic Reservoirs
 Consolidated and unconsolidate sands

 Porosity
• Determined mainly by the packing and mixing of
grains.

 Permeability
• Determined mainly by grain size and packing,
connectivity and shale content.

 Fractures may be present.

22
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate

Sandstone Shale
23
Average Detrital Mineral
Composition of Shale and
Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1


Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)

24
Clastic Rocks
Clastic rocks are sands, silts and
shales. The difference is in the size of
the grains.

25
Sedimentation

26
Sedimentation
 Sedimentary muds become sedimentary
rocks.
• Calcareous muds become limestone.
• Sands become sandstone.
 Grains in the matrix and the fluids
reacting to create new minerals
changing the matrix and porosity. Fluids
can also change creating a new set of
minerals.
 This whole process is called Diagenesis.
27
Clastic Sedimentary
Environments
Environment Agent Of Transportation
Sediments
Deposition

Alluvial Rivers Sand, gravel, mud


Lake Lake currents, waves Sand, mud
Desert Wind Sand, dust
Glacial Ice Sand, gravel, mud
Delta River + waves, tides Sand, mud
Beach Waves, tides Sand, gravel
Shallow shelf Waves, tides Sand, mud
Deep sea Ocean currents, settling Sand, Mud

28
Depositional Environment -
Delta
 Sediments are transported to the basins by rivers.
 A common depositional environment is the delta where the river empties
into the sea.
 A good example of this is the Mississippi (Miocene and Oligocene
sands)

29
Rivers

 Some types of deposition occur in rivers and sand


bars.
 The river forms a channel where sands are
deposited in layers. Rivers carry sediment down
from the mountains which is then deposited in the
river bed and on the flood plains at either side.
 Changes in the environment can cause these sands
to be overlain with a shale, trapping the reservoir 30
Fan Deposition

Example
Alluvial sedimentation

31
Sandstone Composition
Framework Grains

Qtz
Quartz

Qtz
Quartz

Qtz
Qtz

Qtz
Quartz
Ankerite

32
Porosity in Sandstone

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids

Pore Throats Restrict


Fluid Flow

Scanning Electron Micrograph


Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA

33
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation

Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

34
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

35
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water


Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
36
Effects of Clays on Reservoir
Quality

Authigenic Illite Authigenic Chlorite


100 1000
Permeability (md)

100
10

10
1
1

0.1
0.1

0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
37
Carbonate Reservoirs
 Carbonates (limestone and dolomite) normally
have a very irregular structure.

 Porosity:
• Determined by the type of shells, etc. and by
depositional and post-depositional events (fracturing,
leaching, etc.).

 Permeability:
• Determined by deposition and post-deposition
events, fractures.

 Fractures can be very important in carbonate


reservoirs.

38
Carbonate types
 Chalk is a special form of limestone (CaCO3)
and is formed from the skeletons of small
creatures (cocoliths).

 Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) is formed by the


replacement of some of the calcium by a lesser
volume of magnesium in limestone by
magnesium. Magnesium is smaller than
calcium, hence the matrix becomes smaller
and more porosity is created.

 Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and Anhydrite


(CaSO4) can also form in these environments.

39
Depositional Environment
Carbonates

 Carbonates are formed in shallow seas containing features


such as:
• Reefs.
• Lagoons.
• Shore-bars.

40
Diagenesis
 The environment can also involve subsequent alterations of the
rock such as:
• Chemical changes.
• Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. An example
is the replacement of some of the calcium atoms in limestone by
magnesium to form dolomite.

• Mechanical changes - fracturing in a tectonically-active region.

41
Hydrocarbon Generation,
Migration, and
Accumulation

42
Source Rocks
 Hydrocarbon originates from minute organisms in seas
and lakes. When they die, they sink to the bottom
where they form organic-rich "muds" in fine sediments.
 These "muds" are in a reducing environment or
"kitchen", which strips oxygen from the sediments
leaving hydrogen and carbon.
 The sediments are compacted to form organic-rich
rocks with very low permeability.
 The hydrocarbon can migrate very slowly to nearby
porous rocks, displacing the original formation water.

43
Hydrocarbon Migration

Hydrocarbon migration takes place in two stages:


Primary migration - from the source rock to a porous rock.

This is a complex process and not fully understood.

It is probably limited to a few hundred metres.

Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap.

This occurs by buoyancy, capillary pressure and

hydrodynamics through a continuous water-filled pore system.


It can take place over large distances.

44
Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks
Kerogen
Disseminated Organic Matter in
Sedimentary Rocks That is Insoluble
in Oxidizing Acids, Bases, and
Vitrinite Organic Solvents.

Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.

The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the


best indicators of coal rank and thermal
maturity of petroleum source rock.

Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal
45
Interpretation of Total Organic Carbon
(TOC)
(based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Generation
(wt. %) (wt. %)
Potential
Poor 0.0-0.5 0.0-0.2

Fair 0.5-1.0 0.2-0.5

Good 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.0

Very Good 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0

Excellent >5.0 >2.0


46
Plate Tectonics
and
Structural Geology

47
Elements of Plate Tectonics
DIVERGENT BOUNDARY CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
Mid-ocean ridge Plate subduction

Sea floor spreading Volcanism Mountain


Lithosphere building
Oceanic
crust Deep-sea trench Continental
crust
Litho
sphe
re
Magma rising

Asthenosphere

Magma forming

• Earthquake centers
48
Sedimentary Basin and
Stress Fields
Fault Types Basin Geometries

Rift Related Basin


(Extensional Stress)
Normal fault
Sedimentary Fill

Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)

Thrust fault

Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)

Wrench fault

49
Structural Features

50
Folded Structures

Anticline Syncline

51
Fold Terminology
N

b
m
Li
Li

b
m

m
Li
b

Anticline

Youngest
Syncline rock
Oldest rock
Modified from xxx)

52
Faults

Normal Fault Reverse Fault


Strike direction Strike direction
Up Fault scarp
th
Fa

row

Upth
ult

Dow
Do

Sc

n
arp
w

ro
nth

nthr

wn
ro w

wn o
n

Key bed F.W. Dip


F.W. angle
H.W. H.W.
Dip angle
Fault plane Fault plane

53
Faulting (normal faults)

Example Kabab Canyon, Utah

Photograph by XXX

54
Strike Slip Fault
(Left Lateral)

e
Dip Angle
rik
St

Fault Plane
55
Heterogeneity

56
Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity

57
Scales of Geological Reservoir Heterogeneity
Interwell
Well Area Well
Determined

Field Wide
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines, 100's
Statistical m
Modeling,
etc.
1-10 km
Interwell

Reservoir 10's
Sandstone m

100's m

1-10's
10-100's
Well-Bore

m
10-100's mm
µm
Unaided Eye
Hand Lens or
Petrographic or Binocular Microscope
Scanning Electron
Microscope (modified from Weber, 1986)
58
Hydrocarbon Traps

 Structural traps
 Stratigraphic
traps
 Combination traps

59
Traps General

Ghawar Oilfield - Saudi Arabia- Ls - 145 mi x 13 mi wide x260 ft


produces 11,000 b/d total 82B bbls
Gasharan Oilfield - Iran - Ls - 6000ft. Net pay total 8.5 B bbls 60
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Sea Oil/Water
l
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap

Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)


61
Fault Traps
 Faults occur when the rock shears due to stresses.
Reservoirs often form in these fault zones.
 A porous and permeable layer may trap fluids due to its
location alongside an impermeable fault or its
juxtaposition alongside an impermeable bed.
 Faults are found in conjunction with other structures such
as anticlines, domes and salt domes.

Drag Faults - Wyoming,


most Rocky Mountains
Normal Faults - Nigeria,
Hibenia (E. Canada), Vicksburg
62
Trends (Victoria, TX)
Stratigraphic Traps
Michigan - Belle River Mills
Devonian reefs (Barriers and Atolls) -
Alberta CA. (Leduc & Redwater)
Midland Basin &Delaware Basin of
West TX - Barrier Reefs

Point Bars - Powder River Basin, WY, Clinton SS in Western Ok,


63
Petroleum Exploration:
Geophysical Application to
Petroleum Geology

64
Petroleum Exploration-
Geophysical Methods
 Gravity methods
 Magnetic surveys
 Seismic surveys

65
Principle of Gravity
Surveys
Uncorrected
Gravity

+1 Gravity
-1 Value (mgal)
Corrected Gravity -2
-3
(Bouguer Anomaly)

Meter

Salt
Clastics 2.1 gm/cm3
2.4 gm/cm3

66
Principle of Magnetic
Surveys

Sedimentary Basin

Basement

+
Magnetization
Measured
-
(from xxx, 19xx)
67
Seismic Surveys
 The seismic tools commonly used in
the oil and gas industry are 2-D and
3-D seismic data
 Seismic data are used to:
– Define and map structural folds and faults
– Identify stratigraphic variations and map
sedimentary facies
– Infer the presence of hydrocarbons

68
Pre-Drilling Knowledge
Exploration
 Structural information obtained from surface seismic
data.
 Rough geological information can be provided by
nearby wells or outcrops.
 Approximate depths estimated from surface seismic
data.

69
Marine Acquisition System
Boat
Sea Surface

Source
(Airguns) Cable with hydrophones

Incident
waves Reflected
waves

Sea bed

Sedimentary Layers

70
Crossline 470 (East)

N S
Seal (unconformity)
Reservoirs

Source

71
Applications of Seismic Data
 Make a structural model of the
reservoir
 Delineate and map reservoir-quality
rocks
 Establish gas/water contacts

72
Structural Map, VLE 196 Field

0 0
- 12 6
600
-12

00
-130

00
-128
- 12600

Structural interpretation

-12400
based on 3-D seismic

O
and well log data

W
-12400
00
-122

-1
26
400

00
-12

-11600
-1

1400
0

24
80

00
12
-

-1
Top Misoa C-4 Sand

-12
0
00

00
28

Elevation (ft) N

- 1
- 11600
Sea-level datum
11,400

- 11800
- 11 6 0 0

-11,600
-11,600
-12,000 VLE 400 Fa

-12,000

- 12400
ult

N
-12,400

00
W
-12,400

26
-1
-12,800

-12,800

0
00
3
-1
-13,200 0
40
12
-

0 3000 ft
O
W

0 1000 m
00
0
40

26
2

- 1
-1

73
Channels
Seismic
Amplitude
Map
of a
Horizon
3-D Seismic data
define reservoir-
quality,channel-fill
sand deposits

Modified from Brown, 1996 74


Fluid Level Boundaries on 3-
D Data
Not Interpreted Interpreted

Flat spot on seismic line indicates Fault


petroleum / water contact
Modified from Brown, 75
4-D Seismic Surveys
 The “4” in 4-D seismic is time
 A 4-D survey means that at least two 3-D
seismic surveys have been made at
different times over the same field
 Reflection character (attributes) change
through time
 These changes result from migration of the
water contact in the reservoir

76
Importance to
Schlumberger
 Source of revenue.
 Allows our Engineers to:
• Better understand the limitations of a reservoir.
• Design better treatments

77
STS51C-143-0027 Mississippi River Delta and Coastal Louisiana, U.S.A. January 1985

NASA PHOTO
78
STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A.
October 1985
N

20 mi
NASA PHOTO
79
Exercises:
Petroleum Geology

80
Exercise 1
1. Oil forms at lower temperatures than gas. T_____ F ______
2. The law of (original horizontality, uniformitarianism, superposition) states that, in
a normal sedimentary sequence, younger layers occur on top of older layers.
3. The largest division of geologic time is the (era, eon, period, epoch).
4. Hydrocarbons are most abundant in (metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary) rocks.
5. The most abundant sedimentary rock type is shale. T____ F ______
6. Name 3 clay minerals common in sandstone reservoirs
A. _____________________ B.____________________ C. ____________________
• Clastic rocks are formed from the materials of older rocks by the actions of
erosion, transportation and __________________.
• Clastic rocks are sedimentary. T___ F____
• Name two non-clastic sedimentary rocks. A.______________ B.________________
11. Alluvial, desert, delta, beach and shallow shelf sediment make the best reservoirs
T_______ F_______

81
Exercise 2
1. 1. Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. T___ F
___
2. (Magnesium, Iron, or Sulfate) must be in the formation water in order to
convert limestone to dolomite.
3. Limestone is (CaCO3 or Ca(CO3)2).
4. Dolomite is MgCaCO3 or MgCa(CO3)2.
5. Reef deposits are classified as (clastic, carbonate) sedimentary rocks.
6. The source rock must contain (organic material, coal, methane).
7. Fault and anticline traps occur only in gas wells. T___ F___
8. The oil water contact can be observed using seismic T___ F___
9. (Historical, structural, tectonic) geology addresses the occurrence and
origin of smaller scale deformational features, such as folds and faults,
that may be involved in hydrocarbon migration or which may form
structural hydrocarbon traps.
10. Good quality sandstone reservoirs normally contain ~ (1-10 or 25-30%
silt and clay).

82
Exercise 3
N
4 3 4
Well
4
3
2
1
a b

Well

c d

83
Exercise 4
1. Hydrocarbons reservoirs are normally in (igneous,
metamorphic, sedimentary) rocks.
2. Fluorescence of drill cuttings or core indicates (oil, gas,
water) is present.
3. Reservoir traps are (very impermeable, highly
permeable).
4. What are 2 uses of seismic data in petroleum exploration
and development?
1. ________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________
5. In inclined reservoir rocks, what is the significance of a
“flat spot” in seismic sections?
6. What is a 4-D seismic evaluation?

84

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