SERIES AND PARALLEL

CONNECTION OF CELLS
 Series Connection: When two or more similar cells are
connected in such a way that the negative terminal of the
first cell is connected to positive terminal of the next cell
and so on, then this type of grouping is termed as “Series
grouping”. An applied voltage higher than the e.m.f of one
cell can be obtained by connecting cells in series. The total
voltage available across the battery of cells is equal to the
sum of the individual values of each cell. Here three 1.5v
cells in series provide a total battery voltage of 4.5v.two end
terminals A and B are left open to serve as the plus and
minus terminals of the battery .these terminals are used to
connect the battery to the load circuit. The current capacity
of a battery with cells in series is the same for one cell
because the same current flows through all the series cells.
SERIES CONNECTION OF CELLS
 SERIES AND PARALLEL
CONNECTION OF CELLS
 When two or more cells are connected in such a way
that positive terminals of all the cells are connected
with each other and similarly negative terminals of
all the cells connected together. Thus providing one
positive and one negative terminal. This combination
is termed as “Parallel grouping”. For more current
capacity, the battery has cells in parallel. . The
parallel connection is equivalent to increasing the
size of the electrodes and electrolyte, which increase
the current capacity. The voltage output of the
battery however, is the same as for one cell.
SERIES CONNECTION OF CELLS
 Total voltage of one branch = nE Volts
Internal resistance of one branch = nr
Internal resistance of all cells = nr
m
Total resistance = R + nr
M
I = nE = nE = nmE
R + nr mR + nr mR + nr
m m
where n x m = N = total no. of cells.
So, I = NE
mR + nr
For max I, (mR + nr) should be min
Or equal to zero
mR + nr = 0
mR = nr (n cant be negative)
R= nr (total internal resistance = resistance for max current)
m
 Internal Resistance
 It is the resistance offered to the flow of current inside
the cell. It depends upon the flow of current inside the
cell. It depends upon:
 The area of contact between electrolyte and the electrode
 Type and concentration of electrolyte
 The temperature of the electrolyte
 Effect of Internal Resistance
 Terminal P.D. falls
 Energy is wasted and hence efficiency decreases.
 Due to heat generated in the internal resistance the local
action increase, the active material falls off and the
plates of the electrode bend and so on.
 THERMOCOUPLE
 When two dissimilar metals are joined together and joint is
kept at high temperature, there will be an e.m.f exists
between open ends. This e.m.f depends on metals used to
make thermocouple.
 Thermoelectric temperature-measuring instruments depend
for their operation on electrical energy which is produced
by the direct conversion of heat energy at the measuring
source. Thus, unlike resistance thermometers, they are
independent of any external electrical supply.
 This form of energy conversion, known as the see beck
effect, was first demonstrated by See back in 1871, when he
discovered that by taking two wires of dissimilar metals and
joining them at their ends, so as to form two separate
junctions
 Thermo couple Materials and
Combinations
 The materials selected for use as thermoelectric sensing elements fall
into two main groups, base metal and rare metal, and are listed in
table below.
 Thermocouple Combinations:
 PHOTO CELL
 Introduction: A photo cell or solar cell or photovoltaic
cell is a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity
by the photovoltaic effect Modern solar cells are based on
semiconductor physics -- they are basically just
P-N junction photodiodes with a very large light-sensitive
area. If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in intimate contact
with a piece of n-type silicon, then a diffusion of electrons
occurs from the region of high electron concentration (the
n-type side of the junction) into the region of low electron
concentration (p-type side of the junction). When the
electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine
with holes on the p-type side. The diffusion of carriers does
not happen indefinitely however, because of an electric field
which is created by the imbalance of charge immediately on
either side of the junction which this diffusion creates. The
electric field established across the p-n junction creates a
diode that promotes charge flow, known as drift current,
 Operation
 Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are
absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
 Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from
their atoms, allowing them to flow through the
material to produce electricity. Due to the special
composition of solar cells, the electrons are only
allowed to move in a single direction. The
complementary positive charges that are also created
(like bubbles) are called holes and flow in the direction
opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.
 An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a
usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.
 Lifespan
 Most commercially available solar cells are capable of
producing electricity for at least twenty years without a
significant decrease in efficiency.
 Applications:
 Because they have no moving parts that could need
maintenance or fuels that would require replenishment,
solar cells provide power for most space installations, from
communications and weather satellites to space stations.
 Solar cells, Green house, Solar thermal energy, Solar
heating
 Solar energy is rarely used in aircraft, but being use as a
power source in Solar balloons.
 Note: In most applications, solar cells are used in
combination with lead acid cell. When there is sunlight,
the solar cell charges the battery as well as supplying
power to the load. When there is no light, the battery
supplies the required power