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Arved Harding
Statistician Eastman Chemical Company
Material is taken from a TCQF presentation by Arved Harding and Kevin White presented in 2004. Some examples and datasets are taken from MINITAB Statistical Quality Analysis training materials.
Active volunteer and leader in the Northeast 18.5 years experience in supporting Polymers and TN Section of the PET R&D, Technical Service and Manufacturing as American Society for well as physical and analytical testing labs. Quality (ASQ) 1.5 years supporting organizations related to Adhesives, Coatings and Cellulose Esters
Continuous Data Variation (Short-Term and Long-Term) Stability Index Process Capability Indices (Normal Data) Process Performance Indices (Normal Data) Dealing with Non-normal data
The control chart is the tool used to distinguish between common and special causes The control limits represent the expected variation due to common cause
Control Chart
UCL COMMON CAUSE CL
LCL
2 4 6 8 101214161820222426283032
Run Order
Control Limits - often called voice of the process and used to identify special causes of variation.
Measurement
Measurement
Time
Short-Term
Time
Long-Term Short-Term
Long-Term
Measurement
Measurement
Time
Short-Term
Short-Term Long-Term
Time
Measurement
Measurement
Short-Term
Long-Term Short-Term
Time
Time
Measurement
Measurement
Short-Term Long-Term
Time
Long-term (
variation
L T
S T
Long-term (
L T
L T
= R / d2 = s / c4 = MR / d2
i=1
Xi X 2 n1
S T
S T
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For a stable process, you would expect index values near 1. For an unstable process, you would expect index values greater than 1. Rule of Thumb < 1.33 Good Process Stability. 1.33 to 1.67 Marginal Process Stability. > 1.67 Major Process Stability Issues.
Note: For use when n>75. If n<75, consider using <1.5, 1.5-2.0, and >2.0. Do not use when n<30
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LSL
USL
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and Cpk address short-term capability and Ppk address long-term performance
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LSL
USL
S e W th(d o p c id o r*)
U L-L L S S = 3
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Cp =
M Cp b (c r) fg a a ility a
Cp =
USL - LSL 6 ST
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Cust. Tolerance
Cust. Tolerance
-4
-2
Process Capability
Process Capability
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Cp=1
Cp=2
Cust. Tolerance
0.4
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 -5.33 -4.0 -2.67 -1.33 0 1.33 2.67 4.0 5.33
0.4 0.3
Cust. Tolerance
0.2 0.1 0.0 -5.33 -4.0 -2.67 -1.33 0 1.33 2.67 4.0 5.33
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Cpk =
S T
Cpk < 1 - not capable Cpk = 1 - marginally capable Cpk > 1 - capable
avg
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Cp = Cpk if process is on target. Still a measure of potential capability if the process is stable. Can be used for 1-sided specs. (Cpu , Cpl ) A negative Cpk is possible if the average is outside specifications.
Pp =
USL - LSL 6 LT
Pp < 1 - not meeting specs Pp = 1 - marginally meeting specs Pp > 1 - meeting specs
Considered a Process Performance Index If stable, Cp = Pp Can be misleading if process is off target.
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Ppk =
L T
Ppk < 1 - not meeting specs Ppk = 1 - marginally meeting specs Ppk > 1 - meeting specs
If stable, Cpk = Ppk If on target, Pp = Ppk If stable and on target, Cp = Ppk Can be used for 1-sided specs. (Ppu , Ppl ) Best indicator of actual process performance. A negative Ppk is possible if the average is outside specifications.
avg
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Summary of Indices
Cp is the best indicator of potential process capability because it assumes a stable and on-target process. Cpk is an indicator of potential process capability if the process is stable. It does take into consideration if the process is off-target. Pp is an indicator of actual process performance if the process is on-target. It does take into consideration the long-term variability. Ppk is the best indicator of actual process performance because it considers the process average and longterm variability.
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S T
+ (avg-tgt)2
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Example and datasets taken from MINITAB Statistical Quality Analysis training materials.
Problem An electronic cable manufacturer coats the outside of cables to maximize strength and durability. LSL=39 mils, USL = 43 mils, Target = 41 mils. Customers want a Cpk>1.5. Data Collection Operators randomly select 5 cable samples at regular intervals. These samples adequately represent the inherent variation of the process at that time. The operators record the thickness of the outer coating of each cable sample. 65 subgroups were selected. A sample of the spreadsheet is shown.
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Note that the P-value for the Anderson Darling test being less than 0.05 would indicate a concern that the data is coming from a process that is not well modeled by a Normal Distribution.
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manufacturer of galvanized iron wants to assess the capability of the process. The manufacturer requires the surface roughness less than 1.5675 x 10-4 m Engineers collect iron coil samples in subgroups of size 10 and record the surface roughness after the galvanization process.
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would the control charts say its stable but the histogram says its non-normal. The control charts indicate a stable process, though one that is not modeled well by a normal distribution. So lets establish a useful model that fits the data.
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does your gut say? Is there a distribution that this data should be following, according to conventional wisdom? If you have no prior knowledge of a reasonable model for the process, use Minitabs individual distribution identification tools to find a model that adequately fits the data. If non-normality arises from special causes, using non-normal methods is not appropriate.
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For x-bar charts with sample size of 10 it is rarely going to matter. For the capability analyses we calculate a % or ppm expected within specs to get a Sigma level. We also calculate Cp, Cpk, These are sensitive to the assumption of normality. If normality is incorrectly assumed then the estimated proportion of non-conforming items may be overestimated or underestimated.
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is it called Individual Distribution Identification? What is the distribution of the averages? Allows you to fit your data with up to 14 different distributions. Select a distribution based on the probability plot, goodness-of-fit test results and process knowledge.
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MINITAB Help (See Help>Methods and Formulas>Random data and Probability distributions Look in textbooks Try generating random data using MINITABs Calc>Random Data function. You can try different distributions and different parameters to see what they do.
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Thank You
Questions?
Arved Harding can be reached for questions at aharding@eastman.com (423) 229-4957
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THANKS TO KEVIN WHITE, OTHER GOOD STUFF FOLLOWS THAT MIGHT BE USEFUL AS A REFERENCE.
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3(Cp-Cpk)
= The number of short-term standard deviations the average is from the target. 3(Pp-Ppk) = The number of long-term standard deviations the average is from the target.
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of these indices together can give you direction on your improvement opportunities They help tell you whether you need to
Work on special causes (instability) Work on common cause (capability) Move the average (target issue) Or some combination or the above
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Since Ppk is the best indicator of actual process performance, it is the best indicator of whether improvement is needed overall.
Ppk < 1.0 implies "bad stuff" is being produced and improvement is needed Ppk between 1.0 and 1.5 is indicative of 100% conforming product. However, additional instability could easily lead to out of specification material. Processes in this category may or may not need improvement depending on the value. Ppk > 1.5 is also indicative of 100% conforming product. These processes have some "room" to handle additional moderate instability without having out of specification material. Only improve if there is value to be gained.
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< 1.33 process is relatively stable 1.33 to 1.67 process stability is marginal > 1.67 process stability is a potential concern
Have
to keep in mind that it may not be a high priority if Ppk is still very good (say > 1.5)
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Cp is the guide < 1.0 need to improve common cause variability 1.0 to 1.5 common cause variability is marginally acceptable. Don't have much "room" for instability (process upsets) > 1.5 common cause variability is acceptable (If Ppk is still poor, it is primarily due to either stability or offtarget issues and those should be the focus of improvement efforts)
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number of short-term standard deviations from target is the guide. Recall, this can be calculated from the indices as 3(Cp-Cpk).
< 0.5 Process is relatively close to target 0.5 to 1.0 Opportunity exists to improve > 1.0 Process is considerably off-target and should be worked on provided there is value in doing so.
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is recommended that a routine report (monthly, quarterly, or bi-annual) be created that shows this type of information for all key processes and responses. With some simple color coding, it can easily help you identify improvement opportunities.
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Example Report #1
3 Quarter 2004
rd
Process 1
Response 1 Response 2 Response 3 Response 4 Response 5
Avg 70 2.5 8 45 98
Short- LongTerm Term Sigma Sigma 1 1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 2 5.1 0.21 0.21
LSL 65 0 6 40 97
USL 75 5 10 60 100
Process 2
Response 1 Response 2 Response 3 1.11 2.08 0.62 1.11 2.08 0.95 1.11 2.78 0.87 1.11 2.78 1.33 1.00 1.33 1.40 0.00 0.00 1.40 70 2.5 7.3 1.5 0.3 0.5 1.5 0.4 0.7 65 0 6 70 2.5 8 75 5 10
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Example Report #2
XYZ Process, Response ABC Quarter and Year
1Q 2003 2Q 2003 3Q 2003 4Q 2003 1Q 2004 2Q 2004 3Q 2004 ShortTerm Sigmas From Target 0.56 0.34 0.37 0.20 0.00 0.70 0.55
Short- LongTerm Term Sigma Sigma 0.54 1.03 0.59 0.98 0.54 1.10 0.49 0.99 0.52 0.95 0.57 0.95 0.55 1.05
LSL 65 65 65 65 65 65 65
Target 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
USL 75 75 75 75 75 75 75
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Specifications Editing Data Importance of Normality Sample Size Six Sigma and Process Capability Some Less Common Indices
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One-Sided Specifications
At times, your characteristics may only have a LSL or USL and no target.
Performance
Ppk 2 sided 1 sided
Stability
Stability Index 2 sided 1 sided <1.33 >1.67 <1.33 >1.67 1.33-1.67 1.33-1.67
Capability
Cp 2 sided >1.5 1.0-1.5 <1.0 1 sided NA NA NA
Target
Sigma C from Tgt 2 sided 1 sided <0.5 0.5-1.0 >1.0 NA NA NA
Good --Bad
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Use Cpk with the same guidelines as Cp. Since there is no target, the issue of whether the shortterm variability and the process average are adequate becomes confounded. If the Cpk is in the "bad" zone, then it can be improved by either reducing the short-term variability OR by moving the average. Knowledge of the process would be needed to make the best decision. (NOTE: If you have one spec and a target, use Cpk in place of Cp but still use the "Sigma C from Tgt" guidelines.)
Editing Data
If you have an unstable process, you should consider editing your data for the purpose of estimating the short-term standard deviation. This mostly deals with the editing of ranges or moving ranges. Do not edit more than 5-10% of the values. Make one pass through by excluding values above the upper control limit for the range. Do not edit or eliminate data in estimating your long-term standard deviation. The only possible exception here is having some sort of "blunder" edit. Use good judgment.
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Normality
THE INDICES DISCUSSED ASSUME THE INDIVIDUAL DATA POINTS FOLLOW A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION.
1. Check normality by looking at histogram of individual data points. 2. If not normal, why? Is process unstable? Data up against a physical boundary? (yield, impurities) Time oriented data? (time between failures - exponential) Discreteness of continuous data Other? 3. If the underlying process produces data that is non-normal, a data transformation is appropriate. Be sure to transform the specs too! 4. Calculate Indices after transformation.
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S T
+ (avg-tgt)2 1 = Cp
Cr =
6 ST USL - LSL
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