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Control Systems

Closed Loop and Open loop




In open loop, output has no effect on control action.No feedback action Advantage is better stability and cheaper

In closed loop, the difference between output and input is fed back as an actuating error signal Advantage of closed loop is that use of feedback makes it insensitive to external disturbances and variations in system parameters

Laplace Transform


Replaces operations such as integration and differentiation by algebraic operations in complex plane Advantage - it allows users to graphically predict system performance without solving the governing diff eqns

Linear time invariant systems




A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies A system is called time invariant if the coefficients of its governing diff eqns are time invariant

Transfer Functions


Transfer fn of a linear time invariant diff system is defined as a ratio of Laplace transform of output to the that of input under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero If highest power of s in the denominator is n the system is called nth order It's a property of the system and does not depend on input

Block diagrams


A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the flow of signals and functions performed by each signal

Block diagram pic and formula

Industrial controllers
1) Two position or on-off controllers 2) Proportional controllers 3) Integral controllers 4) Proportional plus integral controllers 5) Proportional plus derivative controllers 6) Proportional plus integral plus derivative controllers

Two position contollers




Actuating element has only two fixed positions which are mostly on and off u(t) = U1 for e(t)>0 u(t) = U2 for e(t)<0 Where u(t) is the ouput signal and e(t) is the acutating error signal

  

Proportional controllers


Output of controller is proportional to actuating error signal u(t) = Kpe(t) In laplace transform quantities U(s)/E(s) = Kp Kp is called proportional gain

   

Integral controllers


Output changes at a rate proportional to the actuating error signal du/dt = Kie(t) The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = Ki/s

 

Proportional plus integral controllers


 

Insert pic The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = Kp(1 + 1/(Tis)) Ti is called integral time

Proportional plus derivative controllers


 

Insert pic The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = Kp(1 + Tds) Td is called derivative time

Proportional plus integral plus derivative controllers


 

Insert pic The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = Kp(1 + Tds+ 1/(Tis)) Td is called derivative time Ti is called integral time

 

Block diagram reduction




The product of transfer functions in the feedforward direction must remain the same Product of transfer functions around the loop must be the same

Signal flow graphs




An alternate approach for graphically representing control system dynamics Graphs consist of nodes and branches For a given system, signal flow graph is not unique

 

Mason's gain formula




P = (1/)*kPkk
Pk = path gain or transmittance of the kth forward path = determinant of graph = 1 (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all combinations of two nontouching loops) (sum of gain products of all combinations of non touching loops)+..... k = obtained from by removing the loops that touch path Pk

where
 

Transient and steady state response analysis




c(t) = ctr(t) + css(t) c(t) is time response of system ctr(t) is transient response i.e. Manner in which system behaves as it goes from initial state to final state css(t) is the response at steady state i.e. As t approaches infinity

where
 

First order system




Input output relationship given by For 1st order systems the response to the derivative of an input signal can be obtained by differentiating theresponse of a system to the original signal

C(s)/R(s) = 1/(Ts+1)


Unit-step response


For unit-step response taking R(s) = 1/s At t = T, response is 63.2% of total change

c(t) = 1 e-t/T


Unit-Ramp response


For unit-ramp response taking R(s) = 1/s2 Error signal e() = T

c(t) = t - T(1 e-t/T)




e(t) = T(1 e-t/T)




Unit-Impulse response
 

For unit-impulse response taking R(s) = 1 c(t) = (1/T)* e-t/T

Second order system




Transfer function is given by K/J = B/J = 2


2 n n

C(s)/R(s) = K/(Js2 + Bs + K)
 

=2

where
  

is called attenuation
n

is undamped natural frequency

is called damping ratio

Second order system contd.




Standard form is C(s)/R(s) =


2/(s2 n

+ 2

ns +

2) n

If 0 < < 1 system is called underdamped and transient response is oscillatory If = 0 transient response does not die out If = 1 system is called critically damped If > 1 system is overdamped

  

Underdamped
c(t) = 1 (e- t/(1- 2))*(sin ( 2)/ )) for t>=0
n

t + tan -1 (1d

If =0 response becomes undamped and oscillations continue indefinitely

Critically damped
c(t) = 1 e- t( 1 +
n

nt)

Over damped
c(t) = 1+ ( /2( 2-1))*(e-s t/s1 e-s t/s2) n
1 2

Where s1 = + ( 2-1) s2 = - ( 2-1)

Transient response specifactions


Delay time is the time reqd for the response to reach half the final value the very first time Rise time is the time reqd for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value Peak time is the time reqd for the response to reach the first peak of the over shoot Maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from unity Settling time is the time reqd for the response curve to reac and stay within a range about the final value of size specified by absolute percentage of the final value

Transient response specifactions for second order systems


Rise time = 1/ Peak time = / *(tan-1(d
d / (1- 2) d/

))

Maximum overshoot = eSettling time = 4/ 3/


n n

(2% criterion)

(5% criterion)

Routh's Stability Criterion


Tells us whether or not there arre unstable roots in a polynomial eqn without actually solving it When it is applied to a control system, information about absolute stability can be obtained directly from coefficients of characteristic eqn

Routh's Stability Criterion procedure


1) Write the polynomial in s in the following form a0sn + a1sn-1 + + an-1s + an = 0 2)If any of the coeffs are zero or negative in the presence of atleast one positive coeff there is a root or roots that have +ve real parts and system is unstable

3) If all are positive, arrange the coeffs in rows and columns according to the following pattern
sn sn1 sn2 ... ... s2 s1 s0 e1 e2 f1 g0 a0 a2 a4 a6 a1 a3 a5 a7 b1 b2 b3 b4

b1 = (a1a2 a0a3)/a1 b2 = (a1a4 a0a5)/a1 This is continued till all rows are completed.

Rouths Stability criterion states that no of roots with positive real parts is equal to the no of changes in sign of the first column of the array.

Special cases
If a 1st column term in any row is 0 but remaining terms are not zero, the zero term is replaced by a very small positive number and the rest of the array is evaluated If the sign of the coeff above is same as that below it, it indicates that there is a pair of imaginary roots If the sign of coeff above is opposite to that of sign below it, it indicates that there is one sign change If all coeffs in any derived row are 0, it indicates that there are roots of equal magnitude lying radially opposite in s-plane

Instrumentation

Definitions
Threshold is the minimum value of input signal below which there is no output indication Resolution is the minimum change in input signal for a change in output Precision indicates an instrument's ability to reproduce a given reading Accuracy indicates a reading deviation from theoretical value Non-linearity indicates the maximum possible deviation of any reading from the theoretical linear characteristics of the instrument Zero drift is the reading shown when there is no input Sensitivity drift is the change in sensitivity due to temperature changes

Transducers
Can be used to measure displacement velocity and acceleration Active transducers generate electric energy directly from mechanical energy input Passive transducers generate electrical signals other than voltage and current. Here, mechanical signal is converted into a change in resistance or inductance or capacitance

Different transducers
Displacement measuring - Hand vibrograph, LVDT's seismometers, Piezoelectric transducers, eddycurrent transducers, fibre optic probe Velocity Measuring seismic velocity transducers, electromagnetic transducer Acceleration measuring inductive accelerometer, MEMS accelerometer

GAUGE FACTOR G

(dR / R ) /(dL / L) is often denoted by G and is called gauge

factor and the term (dV / V ) /(dL / L) is called the piezoresistance effect of the material.

where VL I L ! dL / L R! Here L is the strain A along the length of the gauge. In foil type of gauge, the desired grid pattern is obtained using a foil of metal alloy, typically, Constantan. Transverse sensitivity is less than that of wire gauge

LINEAR STRAIN GAUGE

Fig. Foil Gauge

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE DEFINITIONS


WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - four-arm, four-terminal resistancemeasuring network, with two terminals for voltage input; the remaining two for voltage output. BRIDGE CORNER - the electrical connection of two bridge arms and either a voltage-input or voltage-output lead. Corners with voltage-input leads are often designated P (for Power) and those with signal leads, S (for Signal).

I4 II

I1
R4
EO R3
R1

I3

R2

I2

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE -Definitions


TERMINALS - bridge corners. Each may be either physically local or remote to all others. ADJACENT CORNERS - any two corners separated by a single bridge arm. OPPOSITE CORNERS - any two corners separated by two bridge arms. BRIDGE ARM - all the resistive electrical components between two adjacent corners; Includes both the gauge and lead wires in an active arm, or the bridge-completion resistor and the lead wires in an inactive arm. ADJACENT ARMS - any two arms sharing a common corner. OPPOSITE ARMS - any two arms not sharing a common corner. BRANCH - two adjacent arms across the bridge power supply.

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Bridge output is
Eo R1 R4 !  Ei R1  R2 R3  R4

Changes of resistance in adjacent arms (e.g. R1 and R2) have a numerically additive effect on the output when the changes are of opposite sign When changes in adjacent arms are of the same sign, they have numerically subtractive effect When changes in opposite arms are of the same sign, they have numerically additive effect When changes in opposite arms are of the opposite sign, they have numerically subtractive effect

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Corresponding to a non-zero input voltage, the output signal Eo is 0 when there is a condition of resistive balance or when
R1 R4 ! R1  R2 R3  R4

Initially the bridge is balanced A change in resistance of any of the gauges will unbalance the bridge Output of the bridge with R1 alone active is given by
R1  (R1 R4  Eo ! Ei R1  (R1  R2 R4  R3

BENDING STRAIN ANALYSIS -CANTILEVER BEAM EXERCISE

P
IL t

From mechanics, the strain at a point on a simple cantilever beam is L=PL/EI L= longitudinal strain, P= Transverse load, L= distance between the load and the gauge, E = modulus of elasticity. Section modulus, I = bt2/6 where b = beam width and t= thickness.

BENDING STRAIN MEASUREMENT QUARTER BRIDGE


This single longitudinal gauge configuration will respond to bending loads
L

P
IL

Is unaffected by torsional loads if the gauge is mounted on the centreline.


b

Care must be taken with how the load is applied, because transducers utilizing this configuration will also respond to any axial loads that may be present.

I4
EI
E0

I1

I3

I2

BENDING STRAIN MEASUREMENT QUARTER BRIDGE


With R 1 as active gauge I ! 6 PL 1 Ebt 2 ) R (R R R (R o ! 1 1 4 ! 1 1  1  R (R R R R 2R  ( R 2 ) i 1 1 2 4 3 1 1 (R But R ! F , gauge factor (L L ) F (R o ! 1 1 Hence ! 4 R  2 (R 4  2F ) 1 1 1 i When F=2 ) 2 o ! 1 ; 1 4  2 2 ) 1 i

Bending Strain 1/2 Poisson Bridge

I1
L

I2

P
t

I4 II

I1
R4
EO R3
R1

I3

R2

I2

BENDING STRAIN 1/2 POISSON BRIDGE


With
1

and R 2 as active gauges

I 1 ! 6 PL ; I 2 ! YI 1 2 Ebt ) R (R R R (R 1 o ! 1 1 4 ! 1 1   2 R  ( R  Y( R 2 R (R R (R R R ) 1 1 2 2 4 3 1 1 1 i ) R1  (R F (1  Y ) 1 o ! 1 1 ence  ! 2 R  (R (1  Y ) 2 4  2 F (1  Y ) ) i 1 1 1 When 2 ) 2 (1  Y ) o ! 1 4  4 (1  Y ) ) 1 i

BENDING STRAIN 1/2 BRIDGE

I1 I2

P
t

I4 II

I1
R4
EO R3
R1

I3

R2

I2

BENDING STRAIN 1/2 BRIDGE


With R1 and R 2 as active gauges I1 ! 6 PL ; Ebt 2 ) F o ! 1 2 ) i When F=2 ) o ! 1 ) i I 2 ! I1

BENDING STRAIN BRIDGE


In this configuration, two axial gauges are used. The gauge on the lower surface is located precisely under the gauge on the top surface and they measure bending strains of equal magnitudes but of opposite signs. Any resistance changes in the active gauges resulting from strains of like sign produced by axial loads will be cancelled because the two active gauges are in adjacent arms of the Wheatstone bridge. Likewise, resistance changes of thermal original will be negated when both gauges and the specimen experience the same changes in temperature. And because the strains produced by bending loads are of equal magnitude but opposite sign, the bridge output is not only linear but is nominally double that produced by a single active gauge under the same conditions.

BENDING STRAIN- FULL BRIDGE

I3

I1
L

I4

I2

P
t

I4
EI

R4
EO

R1

I1

I3

R3 R2

I2

BENDING STRAIN- FULL BRIDGE

With all our gauges as active gauges

I1 ! 6 PL ; Ebt 2 ) o ! F 1 ) i When 2 ) o !2 1 ) i

I 2 ! I 4  I1

BENDING STRAIN- FULL BRIDGE

This four-gauge version is the most popular bending beam configuration. The linear bridge output is twice that of the preceding half bridge version. Note that the two gauges on the top surface are in opposite arms of the Wheatstone bridge, as are the two gauges on the bottom surface.

AXIAL-HALF BRIDGE

I3
b

I1

R4

R1

I1 I1

EI

E0

I3

R3 R2

AXIAL-HALF BRIDGE
With R 1 and R 3 as active gauges I1 ! P ; I 3 ! I1 Ebt ) F o ! 1 2 F ) i 1 When 2 ) 2 o ! 1 ) 2  2 i 1

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE DEFINITIONS


WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - four-arm, four-terminal resistancemeasuring network, with two terminals for voltage input; the remaining two for voltage output. BRIDGE CORNER - the electrical connection of two bridge arms and either a voltage-input or voltage-output lead. Corners with voltage-input leads are often designated P (for Power) and those with signal leads, S (for Signal).

I4 II

I1
R4
EO R3
R1

I3

R2

I2

AXIAL FULL POISSON BRIDGE

I2 I4 I1
I3
t

I4
EI
E0

I1

I3

I2

AXIAL FULL POISSON BRIDGE

With all our as active gauges I1 ! I 3 ! P ; I 2 ! I 4 ! YI1 Ebt ) F (1  Y ) o ! 1 ) 2  F 1Y) i 1 When 2 ) 2 (1  Y ) o ! 1 ) 2  2 1 Y) 1 i

AXIAL FULL POISSON BRIDGE


This full-bridge configuration with a longitudinal gauge and transverse Poisson gauge on both top and bottom surfaces is the most popular for axial loads. The output is not only higher by approximately a factor of (1+ ) than for the previous two gauge version but, is also less nonlinear (approximately (1- ) /10 % per each 1000 produced by axial loads). This version has good temperature compensation because gauges are present in all adjacent arms of the bridge. Note that both gauges on a given surface are in adjacent arms of the bridge.

BENDING STRAIN ANALYSIS -CANTILEVER BEAM EXERCISE

P
IL t

From mechanics, the strain at a point on a simple cantilever beam is L=PL/EI L= longitudinal strain, P= Transverse load, L= distance between the load and the gauge, E = modulus of elasticity. Section modulus, I = bt2/6 where b = beam width and t= thickness.

FULL TORSION BRIDGE

I1

I2
T R 1 T 2

I4
EI

I1
EO
4 T

I3

I2

FULL TORSION BRIDGE


K max ! 1  2 ! 3  4 ! 4T (1  Y ) 3 T ER

R1  ( R1 )o R4  ( R4 !  )i R1  ( R1  R2  ( R2 R4  ( R4  R3  ( R3 )o F K max ! ! F 1 2 )i

FULL TORSION BRIDGE


Like the full-bridge configuration for bending loads, this torsional version has a linear output and good temperature compensation. All effects of both bending and axial loads are cancelled in this most popular design for torque measurement. However, very accurate gauge orientation and placement of all four gauges is crucial for success. Gauges 3 and 4 are located on the reverse side and are mirror images of gauges 1 and 2.

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