Professional Documents
Culture Documents
In open loop, output has no effect on control action.No feedback action Advantage is better stability and cheaper
In closed loop, the difference between output and input is fed back as an actuating error signal Advantage of closed loop is that use of feedback makes it insensitive to external disturbances and variations in system parameters
Laplace Transform
Replaces operations such as integration and differentiation by algebraic operations in complex plane Advantage - it allows users to graphically predict system performance without solving the governing diff eqns
A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies A system is called time invariant if the coefficients of its governing diff eqns are time invariant
Transfer Functions
Transfer fn of a linear time invariant diff system is defined as a ratio of Laplace transform of output to the that of input under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero If highest power of s in the denominator is n the system is called nth order It's a property of the system and does not depend on input
Block diagrams
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the flow of signals and functions performed by each signal
Industrial controllers
1) Two position or on-off controllers 2) Proportional controllers 3) Integral controllers 4) Proportional plus integral controllers 5) Proportional plus derivative controllers 6) Proportional plus integral plus derivative controllers
Actuating element has only two fixed positions which are mostly on and off u(t) = U1 for e(t)>0 u(t) = U2 for e(t)<0 Where u(t) is the ouput signal and e(t) is the acutating error signal
Proportional controllers
Output of controller is proportional to actuating error signal u(t) = Kpe(t) In laplace transform quantities U(s)/E(s) = Kp Kp is called proportional gain
Integral controllers
Output changes at a rate proportional to the actuating error signal du/dt = Kie(t) The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = Ki/s
Insert pic The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = Kp(1 + 1/(Tis)) Ti is called integral time
Insert pic The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = Kp(1 + Tds) Td is called derivative time
Insert pic The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = Kp(1 + Tds+ 1/(Tis)) Td is called derivative time Ti is called integral time
The product of transfer functions in the feedforward direction must remain the same Product of transfer functions around the loop must be the same
An alternate approach for graphically representing control system dynamics Graphs consist of nodes and branches For a given system, signal flow graph is not unique
P = (1/)*kPkk
Pk = path gain or transmittance of the kth forward path = determinant of graph = 1 (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all combinations of two nontouching loops) (sum of gain products of all combinations of non touching loops)+..... k = obtained from by removing the loops that touch path Pk
where
c(t) = ctr(t) + css(t) c(t) is time response of system ctr(t) is transient response i.e. Manner in which system behaves as it goes from initial state to final state css(t) is the response at steady state i.e. As t approaches infinity
where
Input output relationship given by For 1st order systems the response to the derivative of an input signal can be obtained by differentiating theresponse of a system to the original signal
C(s)/R(s) = 1/(Ts+1)
Unit-step response
For unit-step response taking R(s) = 1/s At t = T, response is 63.2% of total change
c(t) = 1 e-t/T
Unit-Ramp response
Unit-Impulse response
C(s)/R(s) = K/(Js2 + Bs + K)
=2
where
is called attenuation
n
+ 2
ns +
2) n
If 0 < < 1 system is called underdamped and transient response is oscillatory If = 0 transient response does not die out If = 1 system is called critically damped If > 1 system is overdamped
Underdamped
c(t) = 1 (e- t/(1- 2))*(sin ( 2)/ )) for t>=0
n
t + tan -1 (1d
Critically damped
c(t) = 1 e- t( 1 +
n
nt)
Over damped
c(t) = 1+ ( /2( 2-1))*(e-s t/s1 e-s t/s2) n
1 2
))
(2% criterion)
(5% criterion)
3) If all are positive, arrange the coeffs in rows and columns according to the following pattern
sn sn1 sn2 ... ... s2 s1 s0 e1 e2 f1 g0 a0 a2 a4 a6 a1 a3 a5 a7 b1 b2 b3 b4
b1 = (a1a2 a0a3)/a1 b2 = (a1a4 a0a5)/a1 This is continued till all rows are completed.
Rouths Stability criterion states that no of roots with positive real parts is equal to the no of changes in sign of the first column of the array.
Special cases
If a 1st column term in any row is 0 but remaining terms are not zero, the zero term is replaced by a very small positive number and the rest of the array is evaluated If the sign of the coeff above is same as that below it, it indicates that there is a pair of imaginary roots If the sign of coeff above is opposite to that of sign below it, it indicates that there is one sign change If all coeffs in any derived row are 0, it indicates that there are roots of equal magnitude lying radially opposite in s-plane
Instrumentation
Definitions
Threshold is the minimum value of input signal below which there is no output indication Resolution is the minimum change in input signal for a change in output Precision indicates an instrument's ability to reproduce a given reading Accuracy indicates a reading deviation from theoretical value Non-linearity indicates the maximum possible deviation of any reading from the theoretical linear characteristics of the instrument Zero drift is the reading shown when there is no input Sensitivity drift is the change in sensitivity due to temperature changes
Transducers
Can be used to measure displacement velocity and acceleration Active transducers generate electric energy directly from mechanical energy input Passive transducers generate electrical signals other than voltage and current. Here, mechanical signal is converted into a change in resistance or inductance or capacitance
Different transducers
Displacement measuring - Hand vibrograph, LVDT's seismometers, Piezoelectric transducers, eddycurrent transducers, fibre optic probe Velocity Measuring seismic velocity transducers, electromagnetic transducer Acceleration measuring inductive accelerometer, MEMS accelerometer
GAUGE FACTOR G
factor and the term (dV / V ) /(dL / L) is called the piezoresistance effect of the material.
where VL I L ! dL / L R! Here L is the strain A along the length of the gauge. In foil type of gauge, the desired grid pattern is obtained using a foil of metal alloy, typically, Constantan. Transverse sensitivity is less than that of wire gauge
I4 II
I1
R4
EO R3
R1
I3
R2
I2
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Bridge output is
Eo R1 R4 ! Ei R1 R2 R3 R4
Changes of resistance in adjacent arms (e.g. R1 and R2) have a numerically additive effect on the output when the changes are of opposite sign When changes in adjacent arms are of the same sign, they have numerically subtractive effect When changes in opposite arms are of the same sign, they have numerically additive effect When changes in opposite arms are of the opposite sign, they have numerically subtractive effect
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Corresponding to a non-zero input voltage, the output signal Eo is 0 when there is a condition of resistive balance or when
R1 R4 ! R1 R2 R3 R4
Initially the bridge is balanced A change in resistance of any of the gauges will unbalance the bridge Output of the bridge with R1 alone active is given by
R1 (R1 R4 Eo ! Ei R1 (R1 R2 R4 R3
P
IL t
From mechanics, the strain at a point on a simple cantilever beam is L=PL/EI L= longitudinal strain, P= Transverse load, L= distance between the load and the gauge, E = modulus of elasticity. Section modulus, I = bt2/6 where b = beam width and t= thickness.
P
IL
Care must be taken with how the load is applied, because transducers utilizing this configuration will also respond to any axial loads that may be present.
I4
EI
E0
I1
I3
I2
I1
L
I2
P
t
I4 II
I1
R4
EO R3
R1
I3
R2
I2
I1 I2
P
t
I4 II
I1
R4
EO R3
R1
I3
R2
I2
I3
I1
L
I4
I2
P
t
I4
EI
R4
EO
R1
I1
I3
R3 R2
I2
I1 ! 6 PL ; Ebt 2 ) o ! F 1 ) i When 2 ) o !2 1 ) i
I 2 ! I 4 I1
This four-gauge version is the most popular bending beam configuration. The linear bridge output is twice that of the preceding half bridge version. Note that the two gauges on the top surface are in opposite arms of the Wheatstone bridge, as are the two gauges on the bottom surface.
AXIAL-HALF BRIDGE
I3
b
I1
R4
R1
I1 I1
EI
E0
I3
R3 R2
AXIAL-HALF BRIDGE
With R 1 and R 3 as active gauges I1 ! P ; I 3 ! I1 Ebt ) F o ! 1 2 F ) i 1 When 2 ) 2 o ! 1 ) 2 2 i 1
I4 II
I1
R4
EO R3
R1
I3
R2
I2
I2 I4 I1
I3
t
I4
EI
E0
I1
I3
I2
With all our as active gauges I1 ! I 3 ! P ; I 2 ! I 4 ! YI1 Ebt ) F (1 Y ) o ! 1 ) 2 F 1Y) i 1 When 2 ) 2 (1 Y ) o ! 1 ) 2 2 1 Y) 1 i
P
IL t
From mechanics, the strain at a point on a simple cantilever beam is L=PL/EI L= longitudinal strain, P= Transverse load, L= distance between the load and the gauge, E = modulus of elasticity. Section modulus, I = bt2/6 where b = beam width and t= thickness.
I1
I2
T R 1 T 2
I4
EI
I1
EO
4 T
I3
I2
R1 ( R1 )o R4 ( R4 ! )i R1 ( R1 R2 ( R2 R4 ( R4 R3 ( R3 )o F K max ! ! F 1 2 )i