1.

(Introduction to Abstract Algebra)

-
2.(Tensor Analysis)
-
3.(Orthogonal Function Expansion)
-
4.(Green's Function)
-
5.(Calculus of Variation)
-
6.(Perturbation Theory)
N968200
()-()
Reference:
1. Birkhoff, G., MacLane, S., A Survey of Modern Algebra, 2nd ed, The Macmillan Co, New York, 1975.

2. , -, , 1989.

3. Arangno, D. C., Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Abstract Algebra, McGraw-Hill Inc, 1999.

4. Deskins, W. E., Abstract Algebra, The Macmillan Co, New York, 1964.

5. ONan, M., Enderton, H., Linear Algebra, 3rd ed, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc, 1990.

6. Hoffman, K., Kunze, R., Linear Algebra, 2nd ed, The Southeast Book Co, New Jersey, 1971.

7. McCoy, N. H., Fundamentals of Abstract Algebra, expanded version, Allyn & Bacon Inc, Boston, 1972.

8. Hildebrand, F. B., Methods of Applied Mathematics, 2nd ed, Prentice-Hall Inc, New Jersey, 1972..

9. Burton, D. M., An Introduction to Abstract Mathematical Systems, Addison-Wesley, Massachusetts, 1965.

10. Grossman, S. I., Derrick, W. R., Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Happer & Row, 1988.

11. Hilbert, D., Courant, R., Methods of Mathematical Physics, vol(1), , , .

12. Jeffrey, A., Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Harcourt, 2002.

13. Arfken, G. B., Weber, H. J., Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 5th ed, Harcourt, 2001.

14. Morse, F. B., Morse, F. H., Feshbach, H., Methods of Theoretical Physics, McGraw-Hill College, 1953
David Hilbert
Born January 23, 1862 Wehlau, East Prussia
Died February 14, 1943 Gttingen, Germany
Residence Germany
Nationality German
Field Mathematician
Erds Number 4
Institution University of Knigsberg and Gttingen University
Alma Mater University of Knigsberg
Doctoral Advisor Ferdinand von Lindemann
Doctoral Students Otto Blumenthal
Richard Courant
Max Dehn
Erich Hecke
Hellmuth Kneser
Robert Knig
Erhard Schmidt
Hugo Steinhaus
Emanuel Lasker
Hermann Weyl
Ernst Zermelo
Known for Hilbert's basis theorem
Hilbert's axioms
Hilbert's problems
Hilbert's program
Einstein-Hilbert action
Hilbert space
Societies Foreign member of the Royal Society
Spouse Kthe Jerosch (1864-1945, m. 1892)
Children Franz Hilbert (1893-1969)
Handedness Right handed
The finiteness theorem

Axiomatization of geometry

The 23 Problems

Formalism

~ from Wikipedia
Philip M. Morse
Operations research is an
applied science utilizing all known
scientific techniques as tools in
solving a specific problem.
Founding ORSA President (1952)

B.S. Physics, 1926, Case Institute;
Ph.D. Physics, 1929, Princeton
University.

Faculty member at MIT, 1931-1969.
Methods of Operations Research
Queues, Inventories, and Maintenance
Library Effectiveness
Quantum Mechanics
Methods of Theoretical Physics
Vibration and Sound
Theoretical Acoustics
Thermal Physics
Handbook of Mathematical Functions, with Formulas,
Graphs, and Mathematical Tables
Francis B. Hildebrand
George Arfken
Introduction to Abstract Algebra

Preliminary notions
Systems with a single operation
Mathematical systems with two operations
Matrix theory: an algebraic view




( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) R V R R R , , , , , , , - + - +

e a a a a = + = +
1 1
( ) - , R
+ -
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) a c a b a c b
c a b a c b a
- + - = - +
- + - = + -







( )
( ) c b a
c b a
+ +
= + +

a b b a + = +

( ) + , V
( ) R V
=


( ) + , R
( ) - +, , R

a a e e a = + = +
( ) ), , , ( ), , ( - + + R V

Groupoid

A goupoid must satisfy
is closed under the rule of combination

R
( ) + , R
R b a R b , a e + e
Ex. Consider the operation defined on the set S= {1,2,3}
by the operation table below.


From the table, we see


2 (1 3)=2 3=2 but (2 1) 3=3 3=1
The associative law fails to hold in this groupoid(S, )

2



1



3

*
1 2 3
1



2



3

1



3



2

3



2



1

-
- - - - - -
-
A semigroup is a groupoid whose
operation satisfies the associative law.
(groupoid)



Semigroup
( ) ( ) c b a c b a R c , b , a + + = + + e
R b a R b , a e + e
Ex. If the operation is defined on by a b = max{ a,
b },that is a b is the larger of the elements a and b, or
either one if a=b.

a (b c) = max{ a, b, c } = (a b) c

that shows to be a semigroup

If and is a semigroup, then

proof.

) , (R
#
-
-
-
- -
- -
#
R
-
R d c, b, a, e
) (R,+
d) c) ((b a d) (c b) (a + + + = + + +
d) (c b) (a
x b) (a
x by d) (c denoted x) (b a
d)) (c (b a d) c) ((b a
+ + + =
+ + =
+ + + =
+ + + = + + +
A semigroup having an identity element
for the operation is called a monoid.
(groupoid)
(semigroup)


Monoid
( ) + , R
+
a a e e a R a = + = + e - e R e
e
R b a R b , a e + e
( ) ( ) c b a c b a R c , b , a + + = + + e
Ex. Both the semigroups and are instances
of monoids

for each
The empty set is the identity element for the union
operation.
for each
The universal set is the identity element for the
intersection operation.
) , (S
U
) , (S
U

A A A = =
U A_
A A U U A = =
U A_
Group
A monoid which each element of has
an inverse is called a group
(groupoid)
(semigroup)
(monoid)
( ) + , R R
R b a R b , a e + e
( ) ( ) c b a c b a R c , b , a + + = + + e
a a e e a R a = + = + e - e R e
e a a a a R a R a
1 - 1 - 1
= + = + e - e

If is a group and ,then

Proof. all we need to show is that

from the uniqueness of the inverse of
we would conclude





a similar argument establishes that
( ) + , R R b a, e
-1 -1 -1
a b b) (a + = +
e b) (a ) a (b ) a (b b) (a
-1 -1 -1 -1
= + + + = + + +
b a +
-1 -1 -1
a b b) (a + = +
e
a a
) a (e a
) a ) b ((b a ) a (b b) (a
1 -
1 -
-1 -1 -1 -1
=
+ =
+ + =
+ + + = + + +
e b) (a ) a (b
-1 -1
= + + +
Commutative
group
1 - 1 - 1
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
e a a a a R a R a
a a e e a R e R a
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a,
R b a R b a,
a b b a R b a,
= + = + e - e
= + = + e - e
+ + = + + e
e + e
+ = + e

Commutative
groupoid
Commutative
semigroup
Commutative monoid
Commutative group
Ex. consider the set of number
and the operation of ordinary multiplication, and Z
represents integer.
1. Closure:

2. Associate property


3. Identity element

4. Commutative property

is a commutative monoid.
Z} b a, | 2 b {a S e + =
S 2 bc) (ad 2bd) (ac ) 2 d (c ) 2 b (a Z d c, b, a, e + + + = + - + e
| | | | ) 2 f (e ) 2 d (c ) 2 b (a ) 2 f (e ) 2 d (c ) 2 b (a + - + - + = + - + - +
-
Z f e, d, c, b, a, e
2 0 1 1 + =
) 2 b (a ) 2 d (c ) 2 d (c ) 2 b (a + - + = + - +
Z d c, b, a, e
) (S,-
Ring
A ring is a nonempty set with two binary
operations and on such that
1. is a commutative group




2. is a semigroup


3. The two operations are related by the distributive
laws
) , (R, - +
semigroup
groupoid
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a,
R b a R b a,
- - = - - e
e - e
a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a R c b, a,
- + - = - +
- + - = + - e
R
+
- R
) (R,+
) (R,-
group
1 - 1 - 1
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
e a a a a R a R a
a a e e a R e R a
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a,
R b a R b a,
a b b a R b a,
= + = + e - e
= + = + e - e
+ + = + + e
e + e
+ = + e

A ring consists of a nonempty set and two

operations, called addition and multiplication and denoted
by and , respectively, satisfying the requirements:
1. R is closed under addition
2. Commutative
3. Associative
4. Identity element 0
5. Inverse
6. R is closed under multiplication
7. Associate
8. Distributive law
) , (R, - +
+
-
a) (c a) (b a c) (b c) (a b) (a c) (b a 8.
c b) (a c) (b a 7.
R b a 6.
0 (-a) a R a 5.
a a 0 0 a R 0 4.
c b) (a c) (b a 3.
a b b a 2.
R b a 1. R c b, a,
group
1 -
- + - = - + . - + - = + -
- - = - -
e -
= + e -
= + = + e -
+ + = + +
+ = +
e + e
R
Monoid Ring
A monoid ring is a ring with identity that is a
semigroup with identity
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
group
1 - 1 - 1
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
a a e e a R e
a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
e a a a a R a
a a e e a R e
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
a b b a R c b, a,
= - = - e -
- + - = - +
. - + - = + -
- - = - -
e -
= + = + e -
= + = + e -
+ + = + +
e +
+ = + e

Ring
Monoid ring
) , (R, - +
Ring with commutative property

a b b a
a) (c a) (b a c) (b c) (a b) (a c) (b a
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
e a a a a R a
a a e e a R e
c b) (a c) (b a
a b b a
R b a R a,b,c
- - -
- = -
. - + - = - + . - + - = + -
. - - = - -
. e -
. = + = + e -
. = + = + e -
. + + = + +
. + = +
. e + e
1 1 1
) , (R, - +
Commutative
Commutative monoid Ring
a a e e a R e
a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
e a a a a R a
a a e e a R e
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
a b b a R b,c a
1 - 1 - 1
= - = - e -
- + - = - +
. - + - = + -
- - = - -
e -
= + = + e -
= + = + e -
+ + = + +
e +
+ = + e

,
Subring
The triple is a subring of the ring
1. is a nonempty subset of
2. is a subgroup of
3. is closed under multiplication
) , (S, - +
) , (R, - +
S
) (S,+
S
-
) (R,+
R
S b a
e a a a a S a
a a e e a S e
c b) (a c) (b a
S b a
a b b a S a,b,c
R S
1 - 1 - 1 -
e -
. = + = + e -
. = + = + e -
. + + = + +
. e +
. + = + e
. _
The minimal set of conditions for determining subrings
Let be ring and Then the triple
is a subring of if and only if
1. Closed under differences
2. Closed under multiplication

Ex. Let then is a subring
of , since




This shows that is closed under both differences and
products.
R S e =
) , (R, - + ) , (S, - +
) , (R, - +
S b a
S b - a S b a,
e -
e e
Z} b a, | 3 b {a S e + = ) , (S, - +
numbers real of a set is R ), , , (R
# #
- +
integers of set the is Z Z, d c, b, a, e
S
S 3 ad) (bc 3bd) (ac ) 3 d (c ) 3 b (a
S 3 d) - (b c) - (a ) 3 d (c - ) 3 b (a
e + + + = + - +
e + = + +
Field
A field is a commutative monoid ring in
which each nonzero element has an inverse under
) , (F, - +
Definition of Field
c a b a c b a F
F
F
F F
F
- + - = + - e
-
+
- +
) (
}, 0 {
,
, ,
, c b, a, elements of triple each For (3)
1; identity with group, e commutativ a is ) ( (2)
0; identity with group, e commutativ a is ) ( (1)
that such tion, multiplica and addition called , on and set
nonempty of consisting ) ( system al mathematic a is field A
Vector
An n-component, or n-dimensional, vector is an n
tuple of real numbers written either in a row or in a
column.
Row vector
Column vector


called the components of the vector
n is the dimension of the vector

( )
n 2 1
x x x , , ,
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
n
2
1
x
x
x

#
k
R x e
Vector space
A vector space( or linear space)
over the field F consists of the following:
1. A commutative group whose elements are called
vectors.




V(F) ) ), , ),(F, ((V,
or
- + +
group
1 - 1 - 1
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
e a a a a V a V a
a a e e a V e V a
c b) (a c) (b a V a,b,c
V b a V a,b
a b b a V a,b
= + = + e - e
= + = + e - e
+ + = + + e
e + e
+ = + e

) (V,+
2. A field whose elements are called scalars.




e a a a a F a
a a e e a F e
a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a
c b) (a c) (b a
F b a
e a a a a F a
a a e e a F e
c b) (a c) (b a
F b a
a b b a F b,c a
1 - 1 - 1
1 - 1 - 1
= - = - e -
= - = - e -
- + - = - +
. - + - = + -
- - = - -
e -
= + = + e -
= + = + e -
+ + = + +
e +
+ = + e

,
) , (F, - +
3. An operation of scalar multiplication connecting the group
and field which satisfies the properties

e e e
+ = +
=
+ = +
=
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
(a) and , there is defined an element ;
(b) ( ) ( ) ( );
(c) ( ) ( ),
(d) ( ) ( ) ( );
(e) 1 , where 1 is the field identity element.
c F x V c x V
c c x c x c x
c c x c c x
c x y c x c y
x x
V is closed under left multiplication by scalars
n m ij ij
n m ij
n m n m
M ca a c
M a R c
n m
M M

e =
e e
+
+

by tion multiplica scalar define , and For
addition. matrix of operation the is and matrices all of
set the is where , be group e commutativ the Let
) ( ) (
) (
) , (
#
Vector Space
When m = n, we denote the particular vector space by M
n
(R
#
)
Ex:
tion. multiplica scalar under closed is (2)
of subgroup a is (1)
W
V W ); , ( ) , ( + +
Subspace
| = _ W V W ,
Let V(F) be a vector space over the field F
W(F) is a subspace of V(F)
The minimum conditions that W(F) must satisfy to be a subspace are:

.
; ,
W cx F c W x
W y x W y x
imply and
implies
e e e
e + e
If V(F) and V(F) are vector spaces over the same field, then the
mapping f : V V is said to be operation-preserving if
), ( ) (
), ( ) ( ) (
x cf cx f
y f x f y x f
=
+ = +

. and , elements of pair F c V y x e e
f preserves
V(F) and V(F) are algebraically equivalent whenever there exists a
one-to-one operation-preserving function from V onto V
Linear Transformations
Let V and W be vector spaces. A linear transformation from V into
W is a function T from the set V into W with the following two
properties:
. ), ( ) (
. , ), ( ) ( ) (
o o o scalars and (ii)
(i)
V x x T x T
V y x y T x T y x T
e =
e + = +
x T(x)
T
V W
T is function from V to W, } | ) ( { V x x T e
Let V and W be vector spaces over the field F and let T be a
linear transformation from V into W.
The null space (kernal) of T is the set of all vectors x in V such that T(x) = 0
ker { | ( ) 0} T x V T x = e =
If V is finite-dimensional, the rank of T is the dimension of the range of T
and the nullity of T is the dimension of the null space of T.




0
T
ker T
V
W
ran T
U x x T S x T S in for )), ( ( ) )( ( =
The Algebra of Linear Transformations
Let T : U V and S : V W be linear transformations, with U, V, and
W vector spaces.
The composition of S and V
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
and are vectors in , then
( )( ) ( ( )) (by definition of )
( ( ) ( )) (by linearity of )

if x x U
S T x x S T x x S T
S T x T x T
+ = +
= +
1 2
1 2
( ( )) ( ( )) (by linearity of )
( )( ) ( )( ) (by definition of )
Similarly, we have, with in and a scalar,
( )
S T x S T x S
S T x S T x S T
x U
S T
o
= +
= +
( ) ( ( )) (by definition of )
( ( )) (by linearity of )
( ( )) (by linearity of
x S T x S T
S T x T
S T x
o o
o
o
=
=
= )
( )( ) (by definition of )
S
S T x S T o =
Representation of Linear Transformations by Matrices

Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F. T is a linear
transformation, and
1
,
2
,,
n
are ordered bases for V. If
A
T T T T
a a a T
a a a T
a a a T
n
n n
n nn n n n
n n
n n
) , , , (
)] ( , ), ( ), ( [ ] , , , [
) (
) (
) (
2 1
2 1 2 1
2 2 1 1
2 2 22 1 12 2
1 2 21 1 11 1
o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o
o o o o
o o o o

=
=
+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + + =


(
(
(
(

=
nn n n
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
A

2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11

ALinear Transformation T

1
,
2
,,
n

Inner Product
) , ( ) , ( (4)
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , ( (3)
) , ( ) , ( (2)
0 if only and if 0 ) , (
0 ) , ( (1)
scalars real are and and in vectors are , ,
. definition
the from y immediatel follow product inner the of properties Certain
by denoted is which ) , ( written , and of product inner the
in vectors two be and Let
3
T
a b b a
c b c a c b a
c a b a c b a
b a b a
a a a
a a
R c b a
b a
b a b a b a
R b a
3
=
+ = +
+ = +
=
= =
>
+ + =
(
(
(

=

+ + = + + =
o o
| o ,
] [
3 3 2 2 1 1
3
2
1
3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
b a b a b a
b
b
b
a a a
k b j b i b k a j a i a
It follows from the Pythagorean theorem that the length of the vector
u
u
u
cos 2
cos ) , (
*
) , ( ) , (
2 2 2
2 / 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
1 3 2 1
b a b a a b
b a b a
R b a
a a a a a
a a
a
+ =
=
= + + =
+ + + + =


them between angle the be let and in vectors nonzero be and Let

by denoted is vector the of length The
is
3
a a a
a a a k a j a i a
a
x
z
y
2
3
2
2
2
1
a a a + +
2
2
2
1
a a +
a
1
a
2
a
3
x
y
b
a

|b - a|
Inner Product Space
y x x,y y x
V
x y y x
y x y x
y x y x
z y z x z y x
z x y x z y x
x x,x
x,x
V x,y V y x
V
n n
n n
T
) ( and
an constitute to said is product, inner its with together , space vector The
) ( (4)

(3)

(2)
if only and if ) (
) ( (1)
. properties following the
has it if , on product inner an be to said is ) ( number real a in and
vectors of pair every to assigns that function a space, vector real a is If
= + + + =
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
=
=
=
+ = +
+ = +
= =
>
| o | o | o
|
|
o
o
| |
o o

2 2 1 1
1 1
) , ( ,
) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
0 0
0
space product inner
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

0. plus for T of ors eigenvedct the all of consisting
set the is eigenvalue the for of the then , of eigenvalue an is If (c)
. which for vector nonzero
any is eigenvalue the for T of an hen T, of eigenvalue an is If (b)
in vector nonzero some for which for scalar a is of An (a)
. space vector a on operator linear a be Let
,



v} V|T(v) {v
T eigenspace T
v T(v) v
r eigenvecto
V v v T(v) T eigenvalue
V V T:V
= e
=
=

rs. eigenvecto the

of multiples scalar by determined origin the through lines the fixes
operator linear the case, this In ly. respective , and rs eigenvecto
ing correspond with T of s eigenvalue are 2 and 3 that follows it
and Since
by defined on operator linear the be Let Ex.
2
T
T T
x x T T
(

=
(

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
(

=
(

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
(

=
2
1
1
1
,
2
1
2
2
1
1 2
1 4
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
1 2
1 4
1
1
.
1 2
1 4
) ( R
1
1 2 3
1
2
I + 2 j
I + j 1
2
3
4
2 I + 4 j
3 I + 3 j
T
Diagonalization
A square matrix is said to be a diagonal matrix if all of its entries are
zero except those on the main diagonal:
(
(
(
(

0 0
0 0
0 0
2
1
A linear operator T on a finite-dimensional vector space V is diagonalizable if
there is a basis vector for V each vector of which is an eigenvector of T.

=
= =
= = =
=
= = =
=
= =
1
1
2 3 2 1 3 1 3 3 2 2 1 1 3 3
2
2
2
1 2 1 2 2
2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1
1 2
1 2 2 2
1
1
1 1 1
s 2 1
)e u , (e u v
) u (
u
e
form in the set required
the of member th the determines finally process this of on continuati A
)e u , (e )e u , (e u v e e u v ,
) u (
u
e Let
)e u , (e u v
) u , (e or 0 ) e , (e - ) u , (e ) v , (e
ion determinat the to leads e to orthogonal be t that v requiremen The
e u v and u vector second a choose Then we
) u (
u
e length its by it divide and , u Let v
vectors, original the of one any select first We vectors. original the of
ns combinatio linear s of set orthogonal an u , , u , u t vectors independen
linearly of set a from form to section, preceeding in the as , desireable is It
s
k
k s k s s
s
s
s
where
l
s
c c
l
c c
c
l
s

Orthogonalization of Vector Sets

Gram-Schmit orthogonalization procedure
A x x y x,
matrix symmetric a is A y, A x : form the in written be can equations of set The




: equations the obtain we , write we If
a calles is
form the of degree second of expression s homogeneou A
T
ij
n n nn n n
n n
n n
i
i
n n n n n nn
A
a
y x a x a x a
y x a x a x a
y x a x a x a
x
A
y
f orm quadratic x x a x x a x x a x a x a x a A
=
= =
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
c
c
=
+ + + + + + +

) (
] [
2
1
. 2 2 2
2 2 1 1
2 2 2 22 1 21
1 1 2 12 1 11
1 , 1 3 1 13 2 1 12
2 2
2 22
2
1 11

Quadratic Forms
E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

ji ij
i j ij
a a
y x a
=
=
A x = y
Canonical Form
Q A Q A' equation the by defined is matrix A' new the where
x' A' x' or x' Q A Q x' x' Q A ) x' (Q
x' Q x equation the by x' of terms in expressed be x vector the Let
T
T T T T
=
= = =
=
A A
Diagonal matrix
If the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors of the real symmetric matrix
A are known, a matrix Q having this property can be easily constructed
n n n n
e e A e e A = = , ,
1 1 1 1

(
(
(
(

=
nn n n
n
n
e e e
e e e
e e e

2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
Q
Let a matrix Q be constructed in such a way that the elements of the unit vectors
e
1
, e
2
,.,e
n
are the elements of the successive columns of Q:
eigenvalue
eigenvector
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

=
nn
n
n
n
n
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e

2
1
1
12
11
1

Matrix Orthogonal I Q Q or Q Q
Q A Q result the obtain we Q by above equation the
of members equal the ying premultipl by and exists, Q inverse the Thus
0 | Q | that follows it t, independen linearly are e ,....., e vectors the Since
Q Q A or Q A
T 1 - T
1 - 1 -
1 -
n 1
= =
=
=
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

=
] [
0 0
0 0
0 0
2
1
2 2 1 1
2 22 2 12 1
1 21 2 11 1
ij i
n nn n n n
n n
n n
e e e
e e e
e e e
o

i i i i i
e e x = =

A A
2
'
Ex: Let T be the linear operator on R
3
which is represented in
the standard ordered basis by the matrix A
D AQ Q Q
A
=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
= = =
(
(
(

2 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 1
1 0 3
0 1 1
2 2 3
1
0
2
0
1
2
3
1
3
2 , 2 , 1
4 6 3
2 4 1
6 6 5
1
have we Then
, , eigenvecor
eigenvalue
3 2 1
3 2 1
o o o

Diagonal matrix

Orthogonal matrix