SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE THEORY

AND MODELING

Ref. P. Kundur, Power System Stability and
Control, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994

Synchronous generators form the principal source of electric energy in power
systems.
Many large loads are driven by synchronous motors.
Synchronous condensers are sometimes used as a means of providing reactive
power compensation and controlling voltage.
These devices operate on the same principle.
In this chapter, we will develop in detail the mathematical model of a
synchronous machine and briefly review its steady-state and transient
performance characteristics.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a three-phase synchronous machine
1. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Fig. 1 shows the schematic of the cross section of a three-phase synchronous
machine with one pair of field poles. The machine consists of two essential
elements: the field and the armature. The field winding carries direct current and
produces a magnetic field which induces alternating voltages in the armature
windings.

1.1 Armature and field structure
The armature windings usually operate at a voltage that is considerably higher
than that of the field and require more space for insulation. They are also subject
to high transient current and must have adequate mechanical strength. Therefore,
normal practice is to have the armature on the stator.
The three-phase windings of the armature are distributed 120
0
apart in space so
that, with uniform rotation of the magnetic field, voltages displaced by 120
0
in
time phase, will be produced in the windings. Because the armature is subjected
to a varying magnetic flux, the stator core is built up of thin laminations to reduce
eddy current losses.
When carrying balanced three-phase currents, the armature will produce a
magnetic field in the air-gap, rotating at synchronous speed. The magnetic field
produced by the direct current in the rotor winding, revolves with the rotor. For
production of steady torque, the magnetic fields of stator and rotor must rotate at
the same speed. Therefore, the rotor must be run precisely at the synchronous
speed. The synchronous speed is given by
n =
f
p
f 120
(1)
where n is the speed in rpm, f is the frequency in Hz and p
f
is the number of field
poles.
Fig. 2 Salient pole rotor construction
There are two basic rotor structures namely, Salient pole rotor and cylindrical
rotor. When turbine speed is low, salient pole rotors are used. Large number of
poles are required to produce the rated frequency. Salient pole rotors often have
damper windings or amortisseurs at the poles face. They are intended to damp
out speed oscillations. Fig. 2 shows the salient pole rotor construction,


Fig. 3 Solid round rotor construction
Steam or gas turbines, on the other hand, operate at high speeds. Their
generators have cylindrical rotors made up of solid steel forgings. They have two
or four field poles, formed by distributed windings placed in rotor slots. The solid
steel rotor offers path for eddy currents which have the effect equivalent to
amortisseurs currents. Fig. 3 shows the solid round rotor construction details.


Fig. 4 Synchronous machine with two pairs of rotor poles
rotor construction

1.2 Machines with multiple pole pairs
Machines with more than one pair of field poles will have stator windings made
up of multiple set of coils. Schematic diagram of synchronous machine with two
pairs of rotor poles is shown in Fig. 4. Its armature has two sets of coils.


For purpose of analysis, it is convenient to consider only a single pair of poles
and recognize that conditions associated with other pole pairs are identical to
those for the pair under consideration. Angles are normally measured in electrical
radians or degrees. The angle covered by one pole pair is 2 electrical radians or
360 electrical degrees. The angle covered by one revolution is 2 mechanical
radians or 360 mechanical degrees. The relationship between angle in electrical
unit and the corresponding angle
m
in mechanical unit is
=
2
p
f

m
(2)
Fig. 5 MMF waveform due to a single coil
1.3 MMF Waveforms
In practice, the armature windings and field windings of round rotor machine are
distributed in many slots so that the resulting mmf waveforms have nearly
sinusoidal space distribution. In case of salient pole machines, which have field
windings concentrated at the poles, pole faces are shaped suitably to minimize
the harmonics in the flux produced.
Let us first consider the mmf waveform due to the armature winding only. Th e
mmf produced by the current flowing in only one coil in phase a, is illustrated in
Fig. 5, in which the cross section of the stator is cut open and rolled out in order
to develop a view of mmf wave.

Fig. 6 MMF waveform due to number of coils
By adding more coils, mmf wave distribution shown in Fig. 6 may be obtained.
We see that, as more coils are added, mmf waveform is progressing from a
square wave towards a sine wave. It is reasonable to assume that each phase
winding produces a sinusoidally distributed mmf wave.


Fig. 7 Spatial mmf wave of phase a
Rotating magnetic field
Let us determine the net mmf wave due to the three-phase windings in the stator.
Fig. 7 shows the mmf wave form of phase a.


With representing the angle along the periphery of the stator with respect to the
centre of phase a, the mmf wave due to the three phases may be described as
follows:
MMF
a
= K i
a
cos ; MMF
b
= K i
b
cos ( -
3
2
); MMF
c
= K i
c
cos ( +
3
2
)
MMF
a
= K i
a
cos ; MMF
b
= K i
b
cos ( -
3
2
); MMF
c
= K i
c
cos ( +
3
2
)
where i
a
, i
b
and i
c
are the instantaneous values of the phase currents and K is a
constant. The three mmf waves due to three phases are displaced 120 electrical
degrees apart in space.
Each phase winding produces a stationary mmf wave whose magnitude changes
as the instantaneous value of the current through the winding changes. With
balanced phase currents, and time origin arbitrarily chosen as the instant when i
a

is maximum, we have
i
a
= I
m
cos (
s
t); i
b
= I
m
cos (
s
t -
3
2
); i
c
= I
m
cos (
s
t +
3
2
) (3)
where
s
is the angular frequency of stator currents in electrical red. / sec.
The total mmf due to the three phases is given by
MMF
total
= MMF
a
+ MMF
b
+ MMF
c

= K I
m
(cos (
s
t) cos + cos (
s
t -
3
2
) cos ( -
3
2
) +
cos (
s
t +
3
2
) cos ( +
3
2
)
Simplifying using trigonometric relations
MMF
total
=
2
3
K I
m
cos ( -
s
t) (4)
This is the equation of a travelling wave. At any instant in time, the total mmf has
a sinusoidal spacial distribution. It has a constant amplitude and a space-phase
angle
s
t, which is a function of time.
Thus, the entire mmf wave moves at the constant angular velocity of
s
electrical
rad. / sec. Denoting
sm
as the mechanical angular velocity, corresponding speed
of rotation of the stator field is:
n
s
=
2
60
sm
rpm =
2
60

f
p
2

s
rpm (5a)
Thus n
s
=
2
60

f
p
2
2 f =
f
p
f 120
rpm (5b)
This is the same as the synchronous speed of the rotor given by equation 1.
Therefore, for balanced operation, the mmf wave due to stator currents is
stationary with respect to the rotor.
Fig. 8 Stator and rotor mmf wave shapes
phase a
The stator and rotor mmf waves are shown in Fig. 8 relative to the rotor structure,
again with both stator and rotor cross sections rolled out.


The magnitude of the stator mmf wave and its relative angular position with
respect to the rotor mmf wave depend on the synchronous machine load (output).
The electromagnetic torque on the rotor acts in a direction so as to bring both the
magnetic fields into alignment. If the rotor field leads the armature field, the
machine functions as a generator. On the other hand if the rotor field lags the
armature field, the machine functions as a motor.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a three-phase synchronous machine
1.4 Direct and quadrature axes
The magnetic circuits and all rotor windings are symmetrical with respect to both
polar axis and the inter-polar axis. Therefore, for the purpose of identifying
synchronous machine characteristics, two axes are defined as shown in Fig. 1:

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a three-phase synchronous machine



The direct (d) axis, centered magnetically in the centre of the north pole;
The quadrature (q) axis, 90 electrical degrees ahead of the d-axis.
The position of the rotor relative to the stator is measured by the angle between
the d-axis and the magnetic axis of phase a winding.
Fig. 9 Stator and rotor circuits of synchronous machine
Rotation

i
b
i
a
i
c
e
b
e
a
e
c

c
Stator

e
fd
i
fd
i
kq
i
kd
d-axis

q-axis

Axis of phase a

Rotor

r
elec. rad / sec
2. MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE








a, b,c: Stator phase windings fd: Field winding
kd: d-axis amortisseurs circuit kq: q-axis amortisseurs circuit
: Angle by which d-axis leads the magnetic axis of phase a winding, electrical rad.

r
: Rotor angular velocity, electrical rad. / sec.

i
b
i
a
i
c
e
b
e
a
e
c

c
Stator

e
fd
i
fd
i
kq
i
kd
d-axis

q-axis

Axis of phase a

Rotor

r
elec. rad / sec









Fig. 9 shows the circuits involved in the analysis of a synchronous machine. The
stator circuit consists of three-phase armature windings carrying alternating
currents. The rotor circuits comprise field and amortisseurs windings. The field
winding is connected to a source of direct current. The currents in amortisseurs
windings may be assumed to flow in closed circuits. is the angle by which the
d-axis leads the axis of phase a winding. Since the rotor is rotating with respect
to stator, angle is continuously increasing and is related to the rotor angular
velocity
r
an time t as =
r
t. The electric performance equations of a
synchronous machine can be developed by writing equations of the coupled
circuit identified in Fig. 9.
Fig. 10 Variation of permeance for the stator flux with respect to rotor position
2.1 Basic Equations of a Synchronous Machine
While deriving equations of synchronous machine, we use generator convention
for polarities so that the positive direction of stator winding current is assumed
to be out of the machine. The positive direction of field and amortisseurs currents
is assumed to be into the machine.
The flux produced by a stator winding follows a path through the stator iron,
across the air-gap, through the rotor iron, and back across the air-gap. Variations
in permeance of this flux path as a function of the rotor position can be
approximated as shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10 Variation of permeance for the stator flux with respect to rotor
position



P = P
0
+ P
2
cos 2 (6)
Here, is the angular distance from the d-axis along the periphery. A double
frequency variation is produced, since the permeance of the north and south
poles are equal and they occur in 180 electrical degrees apart. Higher order
harmonics of permeance exist; but are small enough to be neglected.
The following notations are used in writing equations for the stator and rotor
circuits:
e
a
, e
b
, e
c
= instantaneous stator phase to neutral voltages
i
a
, i
b
, i
c
= instantaneous stator currents in phases a, b,c
e
fd
= field voltage
i
fd,
i
kd
, i
kq
= field and amortisseurs circuit currents
R
fd,
R
kd
, R
kq
= rotor circuit resistances

aa
,
bb
,
cc
= self-inductances of stator windings

ab
,
bc
,
ca
= mutual inductances between stator windings

ffd
,
kkd
,
kkq
= self-inductances of rotor circuits

afd
,
akd
,
akq
= mutual inductances between stator and rotor windings
R
a
= armature resistance per phase
p = differential operator
Stator circuit equations
The voltage equations of the three phases are
e
a
=
dt
d
a
- R
a
i
a
= p
a
- R
a
i
a
(7)
e
b
= p
b
R
a
i
b
(8)
e
c
= p
c
R
a
i
c
(9)
The flux linkage in the phase a winding at any instant is given by

a
= -
aa
i
a
-
ab
i
b
-
ac
i
c
+
afd
i
fd
+
akd
i
kd
+
akq
i
kq
(10)
Similar equations apply to the flux linkages of phase b and phase c windings.
They are collectively represented as
(
(
(

c
b
a

=
(
(
(

ckq ckd cfd cc cb ca

bkq bkd bfd bc bb ba
akq akd afd ac ab aa




(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

kq
kd
fd
c
b
a
i
i
i
i
i
i
(10 a)
The negative sign associated with the stator winding currents is due to their
assumed direction. All the inductances in the above matrix equation are
functions of rotor position and hence time-dependence.
Fig. 11 Phase a mmf wave and its components
Stator self-inductances
The self-inductance
aa
is equal to the ratio of flux linking phase a winding to the
current i
a
, with all other circuit currents equal to zero. The inductance is directly
proportional to the permeance, which as indicated earlier has a second order
harmonic variation. Thus the inductance
aa
will be a maximum for = 0
0
, a
minimum for = 90
0
, a maximum again for = 180
0
and so on.
The mmf of phase a has a sinusoidal distribution in space with its peak centered
on phase a axis. The peak amplitude of the mmf wave is equal to N
a
i
a
, where N
a
is
the effective turns per phase. As shown in Fig. 11, this can be resolved into two
other sinusoidally distributed mmfs, one centered on the d-axis and the other on
the q-axis.

The peak values of the two components waves centered on d- and q- axis are
peak MMF
ad
= N
a
i
a
cos (11)
peak MMF
aq
= N
a
i
a
cos ( + 90
0
) = - N
a
i
a
sin (12)
The reason for resolving the mmf into the d- and q-axis components is that each
acts on specific air-gap geometry of defined configuration. Air-gap fluxes per
pole along the two axes are

gad
= (N
a
i
a
cos ) P
d
(13)

gaq
= ( - N
a
i
a
sin ) P
q
(14)
In the above, P
d
and P
q
are the permeance coefficients of the d- and q-axis,
respectively. In addition to the actual permeance, they include factors required to
relate the flux per pole with the peak value of mmf wave.
Total air-gap flux linking phase a is

gaa
=
gad
cos +
gaq
cos (+90) i.e.

gaa
=
gad
cos -
gaq
sin (15)
= N
a
i
a
(P
d
cos
2
+ P
q
sin
2
) = N
a
i
a
[
2
P
d
(1 + cos 2) +
2
P
q
(1 - cos 2)]
= N
a
i
a
[
2
P P
q d
+
+
2
P P
q d

cos 2] (16)
The self-inductance
gaa
of phase a due to air-gap flux is

gaa
=
a
gaa a
i
N
= N
a
2
[
2
P P
q d
+
+
2
P P
q d

cos 2]
Separating the fundamental and the second harmonic terms

gaa
= L
g0
+ L
aa2
cos 2 (17)
The total self inductance
aa
is obtained by adding to the above, the leakage
inductance L
al
, which represents the leakage flux nor crossing the air-gap. Thus

aa
= L
al
+ L
g0
+ L
aa2
cos 2 i.e.

aa
= L
aa0
+ L
aa2
cos 2 (18)
where
L
aa0
= N
a
2

2
P P
q d
+
+ L
al
(19)
L
aa2
= N
a
2

2
P P
q d

(20)
Fig. 12 Variation of self-inductance of phase a with
Since the windings of phases b and c are identical to that of phase a and are
displaced from it by 120
0
and 240
0
respectively, we have

bb
= L
aa0
+ L
aa2
cos 2 ( -
3
2
) (21)

cc
= L
aa0
+ L
aa2
cos 2 ( +
3
2
) (22)
The variation of
aa
with is shown in Fig. 12.


Stator mutual inductances
It is to be noted that the mutual inductance
ab
is equal to the mutual inductance

ba
.

The mutual inductance
ab
can be found either by evaluating the air-gap flux

gab
linking phase a, when only phase b is excited or by evaluating the air-gap
flux
gba
linking phase b, when only phase a is excited. We prefer the latter, since
we can easily find
gba
from the already known
gaa
. As we wish to find the flux
linking phase b due to mmf of phase a, is replaced by -
3
2
in equation (15).

gaa
=
gad
cos -
gaq
sin (15)
Thus
gba
=
gad
cos ( -
3
2
) -
gaq
sin ( -
3
2
)
Substituting for
gad
and
gaq
from equations (13) and (14)

gad
= (N
a
i
a
cos ) P
d
(13)
gaq
= ( - N
a
i
a
sin ) P
q
(14)

gba
= N
a
i
a
[ P
d
cos

cos ( -
3
2
) + P
q
sin sin ( -
3
2
) ]
Knowing cos

cos ( -
3
2
) = -
4
1
+
2
1
cos ( 2 -
3
2
) and
sin sin ( -
3
2
) = -
4
1
-
2
1
cos ( 2 -
3
2
), above equation becomes

gba
= N
a
i
a
[ -
4
P P
q d
+
+
2
P P
q d

cos (2 -
3
2
) ] (23)
The mutual inductance between phases a and b due to the air-gap flux is

gba
=
a
gba a
i
N
= N
a
2
[ -
4
P P
q d
+
+
2
P P
q d

cos (2 -
3
2
) ]
= -
2
1
L
g0
+ L
ab2
cos (2 -
3
2
)
The total mutual inductance
ba
is obtained by adding to the above, a very small
leakage inductance which represents the leakage flux nor crossing the air-gap.
Thus the mutual inductance between phases a and b can be written as

ab
=
ba
= - L
ab0
+ L
ab2
cos (2 -
3
2
)
Knowing that cos = - cos ( + )

ab
=
ba
= - L
ab0
- L
ab2
cos (2 +
3

) (24)
In the above L
ab0
is nearly equal to L
aa0
/ 2 and L
ab2
= L
aa2

Fig. 13 Variation of mutual inductance
ab
with
Now, other mutual inductances
bc
and
ca
can be obtained by replacing by
-
3
2
and +
3
2
.
[ 2( -
3
2
) +
3

= 2 and 2( +
3
2
) +
3

= 2 +
3
5
= 2 -
3

]
Therefore

ab
=
ba
= - L
ab0
- L
ab2
cos (2 +
3

) (24)

bc
=
cb
= - L
ab0
- L
ab2
cos (2 - ) (25)

ca
=
ac
= - L
ab0
- L
ab2
cos (2 -
3

) (26)
The variation of mutual inductance between phases a and b as a function of angle
is illustrated in Fig. 13.

Mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings
With the variation in air-gap due to stator slots neglected, the rotor circuits see a
constant permeance. Therefore the situation in this case is not one of variation of
permeance; instead, the variation in the mutual inductance is due to the relative
motion between the stator and rotor windings.
When the rotor winding is lined up with a stator winding, the flux linking the two
windings is maximum and the mutual inductance is maximum. When the two
windings are displaced by 90
0
, no flux links the two circuits and the mutual
inductance is zero. (Refer Fig. 9) Therefore

afd
=
fda
= L
afd
cos (27)

akd
=
kda
= L
akd
cos (28)

akq
=
kqa
= L
akq
cos ( +
2

) = - L
akq
sin (29)
Corresponding to phase b and phase c windings

bfd
=
fdb
= L
afd
cos ( -
3
2
) (30)

bkd
=
kdb
= L
akd
cos ( -
3
2
) (31)

bkq
=
kqb
= - L
akq
sin ( -
3
2
) (32)

cfd
=
fdc
= L
afd
cos ( +
3
2
) (33)

ckd
=
kdc
= L
akd
cos ( +
3
2
) (34)

ckq
=
kqc
= - L
akq
sin ( +
3
2
) (35)
We now have the expressions for all the inductances that appear in the equation
for flux linkage in phase a stator winding. On substituting the expressions for
these inductances into equation (10), we obtain

a
= -
aa
i
a
-
ab
i
b
-
ac
i
c
+
afd
i
fd
+
akd
i
kd
+
akq
i
kq

= - i
a
[ L
aa0
+ L
aa2
cos 2 ] + i
b
[ L
ab0
+ L
ab2
cos (2 +
3

) ]
+ i
c
[ L
ab0
+ L
ab2
cos (2 -
3

) ] + i
fd
L
afd
cos + i
kd
L
akd
cos - i
kq
L
akq
sin
(36)
Similarly for phase b and c we have

b
= -
ba
i
a
-
bb
i
b
-
bc
i
c
+
bfd
i
fd
+
bkd
i
kd
+
bkq
i
kq

= i
a
[L
ab0
+ L
ab2
cos (2 +
3

) ] - i
b
[ L
aa0
+ L
aa2
cos 2 ( -
3
2
) ]
+ i
c
[ L
ab0
+ L
ab2
cos (2 - ) ] + i
fd
L
afd
cos ( -
3
2
) + i
kd
L
akd
cos ( -
3
2
)
- i
kq
L
akq
sin ( -
3
2
) (37)

c
= -
ca
i
a
-
cb
i
b
-
cc
i
c
+
cfd
i
fd
+
ckd
i
kd
+
ckq
i
kq

= i
a
[ L
ab0
+ L
ab2
cos (2 -
3

) + i
b
[L
ab0
+ L
ab2
cos (2 - ) ]
- i
c
[ L
aa0
+ L
aa2
cos 2 ( +
3
2
) ] + i
fd
L
afd
cos ( +
3
2
)
+ i
kd
L
akd
cos ( +
3
2
) - i
kq
L
akq
sin ( +
3
2
) (38)
Rotor circuit equations
The rotor circuit voltage equations are:
e
fd
= p
fd
+ R
fd
i
fd
(39)
0 = p
kd
+ R
kd
i
kd
(40)
0 = p
kq
+ R
kq
i
kq
(41)
(
(
(

kq
kd
fd

=
(
(
(

kkq kdc kqb kqa

kkd kdf kdc kdb kda
fkd ffd fdc fdb fda



0 0
0
0

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

kq
kd
fd
c
b
a
i
i
i
i
i
i
(41 a)
The rotor circuit see constant permeance because of the cylindrical structure of
the stator. Therefore, the self-inductances L
ffd
, L
kkd
and L
kkq
and the mutual
inductance L
fkd
between each other do not vary with rotor position. Only the rotor
to stator mutual inductances vary periodically with as given by equations (27) to
(36). Thus the rotor circuit flux linkages can be expressed as follows:

fd
= -
afd
i
a
-
bfd
i
b
-
cfd
i
c
+
ffd
i
fd
+
fkd
i
kd

fd
= -
afd
i
a
-
bfd
i
b
-
cfd
i
c
+
ffd
i
fd
+
fkd
i
kd

Substituting for the various inductances

fd
= (L
afd
cos ) i
a
[L
afd
cos (-
3
2
)] i
b
- [L
afd
cos (+
3
2
)] i
c
+ L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
fkd
i
kd

= L
afd
[ i
a
cos + i
b
cos (-
3
2
) + i
c
cos (+
3
2
) ] + L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
fkd
i
kd
(42)
Similarly

kd
= L
akd
[ i
a
cos + i
b
cos (-
3
2
) + i
c
cos (+
3
2
) ] + L
fkd
i
fd
+ L
kkd
i
kd
(43)

kq
= L
akq
[ i
a
sin + i
b
sin (-
3
2
) + i
c
sin (+
3
2
) ] + L
kkq
i
kq
(44)
3. THE dq0 TRANSFORMATION
Equations (7) to (9) (for e
a
, e
b,
e
c
) and equations (36) to (38) (for
a
,
b
,
c
)
associated with the stator circuits, together with equations (39) to (44) (for e
fd
, e
kd
,
e
kq
,
fd
,
kd
,
kq
) associated with rotor circuits, completely describe the electrical
performance of synchronous machine. However, these equations contain
inductance terms which vary with angle which in turn varies with time. This
introduces considerable complexity in solving machine and power system
problems. A much simpler form, leading to a clearer physical picture is obtained
by appropriate transformation of stator variables.
We see from equations (42) to (44) that the stator currents combine into
convenient form in each axis. This suggests the transformation of the stator
phase currents into new variables as follows:
i
d
= k
d
[ i
a
cos + i
b
cos (-
3
2
) + i
c
cos (+
3
2
) ] (45)
i
q
= - k
q
[ i
a
sin + i
b
sin (-
3
2
) + i
c
sin (+
3
2
) ] (46)
The constants k
d
and k
q
are arbitrary and their values may be chosen to simply
numerical coefficients in the performance equations. We shall take values of k
d

and k
q
as 2 / 3.
With k
d
= k
q
= 2 / 3, for balanced sinusoidal stator currents, the peak values of i
d

and i
q
are equal to the peak value of the stator current as shown below.
For the balanced condition,
i
a
= I
m
sin
s
t ; i
b
= I
m
sin (
s
t -
3
2
); i
c
= I
m
sin (
s
t +
3
2
)
Substitution of the above in equation (45) yields
i
d
= k
d
I
m
[ sin
s
t cos + sin (
s
t -
3
2
) cos (-
3
2
)
+ sin (
s
t +
3
2
) cos (+
3
2
) ]
= k
d
I
m

2
3
sin (
s
t - )
With k
d
=
3
2
, the peak value of i
d
is equal to I
m
, the peak value of stator current.
Similarly, with balanced sinusoidal stator currents
i
q
= - k
d
I
m
[ sin
s
t sin + sin (
s
t -
3
2
) sin (-
3
2
)
+ sin (
s
t +
3
2
) sin (+
3
2
) ]
i
q
= - k
d
I
m

2
3
cos (
s
t - )
Again k
q
=
3
2
, the peak value of i
q
is equal to I
m
, the peak value of stator current.
To give a complete degree of freedom, a third current component must be defined
so that the three-phase currents are transformed into three variables. Since, as
seen from equations (42) to (44), the two current components i
d
and i
q
together
produce a field identical to that produced by the original set of phase currents,
the third component must produce no space field in the air-gap. Therefore, a
convenient third variable is the zero sequence current i
0
, associated with the
symmetrical components.
Thus i
0
=
3
1
( i
a
+ i
b
+ i
c
) (47)
Under balanced conditions, i
a
+ i
b
+ i
c
= 0 and, therefore i
0
= 0.
The transformation from the abc phase variables to the dq0 variables can be
written in the following matrix form:
(
(
(

0
q
d
i
i
i
=
3
2

(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
2
1
2
1
2
1
)
3
2
( sin )
3
2
( sin sin
)
3
2
( cos )
3
2
( cos cos

(
(
(

c
b
a
i
i
i
(48)
The inverse transformation is given by
(
(
(

c
b
a
i
i
i
=
(
(
(
(
(
(

+ +

1 )
3
2
( sin )
3
2
( cos
1 )
3
2
( sin )
3
2
- ( cos
1 sin - cos

(
(
(

0
q
d
i
i
i
(49)
The above transformations also apply to stator flux linkages and voltages.
Stator flux linkages in dq0 components
Using the expressions for
a
,
b
and
c
given by equations (36), (37) and (38),
transforming the flux linkages and currents into dq0 components and with
suitable reduction of terms involving trigonometric terms, we obtain the following
expressions:

d
= - ( L
aa0
+ L
ab0
+
2
3
L
aa2
) i
d
+ L
afd
i
fd
+ L
akd
i
kd
(50)

q
= - ( L
aa0
+ L
ab0
-
2
3
L
aa2
) i
q
+ L
akq
i
kq
(51)

0
= - ( L
aa0
- 2 L
ab0
) i
0
(52)
Defining the following new inductances
L
d
= L
aa0
+ L
ab0
+
2
3
L
aa2
(53)
L
q
= L
aa0
+ L
ab0
-
2
3
L
aa2
(54)
L
0
= L
aa0
- 2 L
ab0
(55)
the flux linkages equations become

d
= - L
d
i
d
+ L
afd
i
fd
+ L
akd
i
kd
(56)

q
= - L
q
i
q
+ L
akq
i
kq
(57)

0
= - L
0
i
0
(58)
The above three equations in matrix form is:
(
(
(

0
q
d

=
(
(
(

0 0 0 L 0 0
L 0 0 0 L 0
0 L L 0 0 L
0
akq q
akd afd d

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

kq
kd
fd
0
q
d
i
i
i
i
i
i
(59)
It is seen that the dq0 components of stator flux linkages are related to the
components stator and rotor currents through constant inductances.
Rotor flux linkages in dq0 components
Substitution of expressions for i
d
and i
q
in equations (42) to (44)

fd
= L
afd
[ i
a
cos + i
b
cos (-
3
2
) + i
c
cos (+
3
2
)] + L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
fkd
i
kd
(42)

kd
= L
akd
[ i
a
cos + i
b
cos (-
3
2
) + i
c
cos (+
3
2
)] + L
fkd
i
fd
+ L
kkd
i
kd
(43)

kq
= L
akq
[ i
a
sin + i
b
sin (-
3
2
) + i
c
sin (+
3
2
)]+ L
kkq
i
kq
(44)
straight away gives

fd
= L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
fkd
i
kd

2
3
L
afd
i
d
(60)

kd
= L
fkd
i
fd
+ L
kkd
i
kd

2
3
L
akd
i
d
(61)

kq
= L
kkq
i
kq
-
2
3
L
akq
i
q
(62)

fd
= L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
fkd
i
kd

2
3
L
afd
i
d
(60)

kd
= L
fkd
i
fd
+ L
kkd
i
kd

2
3
L
akd
i
d
(61)

kq
= L
kkq
i
kq
-
2
3
L
akq
i
q
(62)
Writing in matrix form, the above three equations yield

(
(
(

kq
kd
fd

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

kkq akg
kkd fkd akd
fkd ffd afd
L 0 0 L
2
3
0
0 L L 0 L
2
3
0 L L 0 L
2
3

(
(
(
(
(
(

kq
kd
fd
q
d
i
i
i
i
i
(63)
Again it is seen that inductances are constants and independent of rotor position.
It is interesting to note that the current i
0
does not appear in the rotor flux linkage
equations. This is because zero sequence component of armature current does
not produce net mmf across the air-gap.
While the dq0 transformation has resulted in constant inductances, the mutual
inductances between stator and rotor quantities are NOT RECIPROCAL. For
example, mutual inductance between the flux linking the field winding and the
current i
d
is -
2
3
L
afd
, whereas the mutual inductance associated with the flux
linking the d-axis due to field current i
fd
is L
afd
. This problem will be overcome by
appropriate choice of per unit system for the ROTOR QUANTITIES.
Stator voltage equations in dq0 components
Equations e
a
= p
a
- R
a
i
a
(7) e
b
= p
b
R
a
i
b
(8) e
c
= p
c
R
a
i
c
(9)
are the basic equations for phase voltages in terms of phase linkages and
currents. Using dq0 transformation, we can get e
d
, e
q
and e
0
in terms of
d
,
q
,
0
,
i
d
, i
q
and i
0
.
We know
a
=
d
cos -
q
sin +
0
[Refer eq.(49)]
p
a
= -
d
p sin + p
d
cos -
q
p cos p
q
sin + p
0
(64)
Knowing that
2
3
e
d
= cos e
a
+ cos (-
3
2
) e
b
+ cos (+
3
2
) e
c

= cos [ p
a
R
a
( i
d
cos i
q
sin + i
0
) ] + other cyclic terms
= -
d
p sin cos + p
d
cos
2
-
q
p cos
2
p
q
sin cos
+ p
0
cos R
a
i
d
cos
2
+ R
a
i
q
sin cos - R
a
i
0
cos + other cyclic terms
= 0 +
2
3
p
d
-
2
3

q
p + 0 + 0 -
2
3
R
a
i
d
+ 0 + 0
Thus e
d
= p
d
-
q
p - R
a
i
d
(65)
Similarly
2
3
e
q
= - sin e
a
- sin (-
3
2
) e
b
- sin (+
3
2
) e
c

= - sin [ p
a
R
a
( i
d
cos i
q
sin + i
0
) ] + other cyclic terms
=
d
p sin
2
- p
d
sin cos +
q
p sin cos + p
q
sin
2
- p
0
sin
+ R
a
i
d
sin cos - R
a
i
q
sin
2
+ R
a
i
0
sin + other cyclic terms

=
2
3

d
p + 0 + 0 +
2
3
p
q
+ 0 + 0 -
2
3
R
a
i
q
Thus e
q
= p
q
+
d
p - R
a
i
q
(66)
and 3e
0
= e
a
+ e
b
+ e
c
= p
a
R
a
( i
d
cos i
q
sin + i
0
) + other cyclic terms
= -
d
p sin + p
d
cos -
q
p cos p
q
sin + p
0

R
a
i
d
cos + R
a
i
q
sin R
a
i
0
+ other cyclic terms

= 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 3 p
0
3 R
a
i
0

Thus e
0
= p
0
- R
a
i
0
(67)
Collectively
e
d
= p
d
-
q
p - R
a
i
d
(65)
e
q
= p
q
+
d
p - R
a
i
q


(66)
e
0
= p
0
- R
a
i
q


(67)
e
d
= p
d
-
q
p - R
a
i
d
(65)
e
q
= p
q
+
d
p - R
a
i
q


(66)
e
0
= p
0
- R
a
i
q


(67)
The term p in the above equations represents the angular velocity
r
of the
rotor. For a 50 Hz system, under steady state condition p =
r
=
s
= 2x50 =
314 electrical rad. / sec.
The above equations have a form similar to those of static coil, except for the

q
p and
d
p terms. They result from stationary to rotating reference frame and
represent the fact that a flux wave rotating in synchronism with the rotor will
create voltages in the stationary armature coils. The terms
q
p and
d
p are
referred as speed voltages (due to flux change in space) and the terms p
d
and
p
q
as transformer voltages (due to flux change in time).
Electrical power and torque
The instantaneous three-phase output of the stator is
P
t
= e
a
i
a
+ e
b
i
b
+ e
c
i
c
(68)
Using the dq0 transformation
P
t
= [e
d
cos e
q
sin + e
0
] [i
d
cos i
q
sin + i
0
] + [e
d
cos ( -
3
2
)
e
q
sin (-
3
2
) + e
0
] [i
d
cos ( -
3
2
) i
q
sin (-
3
2
) + i
0
] +
[e
d
cos ( +
3
2
) e
q
sin ( +
3
2
) + e
0
] [i
d
cos ( +
3
2
) i
q
sin (+
3
2
) + i
0
]
=
2
3
e
d
i
d
+
2
3
e
q
i
q
+ 3 e
0
i
0
Thus
P
t
=
2
3
( e
d
i
d
+ e
q
i
q
+ 2 e
0
i
0
) (69)
Under balanced operation, e
0
= i
0
= 0 and the expression for power is given by
P
t
=
2
3
( e
d
i
d
+ e
q
i
q
)
Substituting equations (65) to (67) in eq. (69)
P
t
=
2
3
[ i
d
(p
d
-
q
p - R
a
i
d
) + i
q
(p
q
+
d
p - R
a
i
q
) + 2 i
0
(p
0
- R
a
i
q
) ]
=
2
3
[ (i
d
p
d
+ i
q
p
q
+ 2 i
0
p
0
) +
r
(
d
i
q

q
i
d
) R
a
(i
2
d
+ i
2
q
+ 2 i
2
0
) ] (70)
= Rate of change of armature magnetic energy
+ power transferred across the air-gap armature resistance loss
The air-gap torque T
e
is obtained by dividing the power transferred across the air-
gap (i.e., power corresponding to the speed voltage) by the rotor speed in
mechanical radians per second.
T
e
=
2
3
(
d
i
q

q
i
d
)
mech
r

=
2
3
(
d
i
q

q
i
d
)
2
P
f
(71)
The flux-linkage equations

d
= - L
d
i
d
+ L
afd
i
fd
+ L
akd
i
kd
(56)
fd
= L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
fkd
i
kd

2
3
L
afd
i
d
(60)

q
= - L
q
i
q
+ L
akq
i
kq
(57)
kd
= L
fkd
i
fd
+ L
kkd
i
kd

2
3
L
akd
i
d
(61)

0
= - L
0
i
0
(58)
kq
= L
kkq
i
kq
-
2
3
L
akq
i
q
(62)
associated with the stator and rotor circuits, together with the stator and voltage
equations
e
d
= p
d
-
q
p - R
a
i
d
(65) e
fd
= p
fd
+ R
fd
i
fd
(39)
e
q
= p
q
+
d
p - R
a
i
q
(66)

0 = p
kd
+ R
kd
i
kd
(40)
e
0
= p
0
- R
a
i
q
(67) 0 = p
kq
+ R
kq
i
kq
(41)
and the torque equation
T
e
=
2
3
(
d
i
q

q
i
d
)
mech
r

=
2
3
(
d
i
q

q
i
d
)
2
P
f
(71)
describe the electrical performance of the machines in terms of the dq0
components. These equations are known as Parks equations and the dq0
transformation is known as Park transformation.
Physical interpretation of dq0 transformation
In Section 1.3, we saw that the combined mmf wave due to the currents in three
armature phases, travel along the periphery of the stator at a velocity of
s
rad. /
sec. The angular velocity of the rotor also equals to
s
rad. / sec. Therefore, for
balanced synchronous operation, the armature mmf wave appears stationary
with respect to the rotor and has a sinusoidal space distribution. Since a sine
function can be expressed as a sum of two sine functions, the mmf due to stator
windings, can be resolved into two sinusoidally distributed mmf waves stationary
with respect to the rotor, so that one has its peak over the d-axis and the other
has its peak over the q-axis.
Therefore, i
d
may be interpreted as the instantaneous current in a fictitious
armature winding which rotates at the same speed as the rotor, and remains in
such a position that its axis always coincides with the d-axis. The value of the
current in this winding is such that it results in the same mmf on the d-axis as do
actual phase currents flowing in the armature windings. A similar interpretation
applies to i
q
, except that it acts on the q-axis instead of d-axis.
The mmfs due to i
d
and i
q
are stationary with respect to the rotor and act on path
of constant permeance. Therefore, the corresponding inductances L
d
and L
q
are
constant.
For balanced steady-state conditions, the phasor currents may be written as
follows:
i
a
= I
m
sin (
s
t + ) (72)
i
b
= I
m
sin (
s
t + -
3
2
) (73)
i
c
= I
m
sin (
s
t + +
3
2
) (74)
Using the dq0 transformation, i
d
=
3
2
[i
a
cos + i
b
cos ( -
3
2
) + i
c
cos ( +
3
2
)]
i
d
=
3
2
I
m
[ sin (
s
t + ) cos + sin (
s
t + -
3
2
) cos ( -
3
2
)
+ sin (
s
t + +
3
2
) cos ( +
3
2
) ] =
3
2
I
m

2
3
sin (
s
t + ) i.e.
i
d
= I
m
sin (
s
t + ) (75)
i
d
= I
m
sin (
s
t + ) (75)
Similarly
i
q
= - I
m
cos (
s
t + ) (76)
i
0
= 0 (77)
For synchronous operation, the rotor speed
r
, is equal to the angular frequency

s
of the stator currents. Hence =
r
t =
s
t. Therefore,
i
d
= I
m
sin = constant; i
q
= - I
m
cos = constant
Thus, for balanced steady-state operation, i
d
and i
q
are constant. In other words,
alternating phase currents in the abc reference frame appear as direct currents in
dq0 reference frame. The dq0 transformation may be viewed as a means of
referring the stator quantities to the rotor side, with a major advantage of
constant inductances in the dynamic performance equations.
4. PER UNIT REPRESENTATION
Per unit representation is commonly used in power system problems. In the case
of synchronous machine, the per unit system is used to remove arbitrary
constants and simply mathematical equations so that they may be expressed in
terms of equivalent circuits. The basis for selection of per unit system for the
stator is straightforward, whereas it requires careful consideration for the rotor.
4.1 Per unit System for the Stator Quantities
Let us choose the following base quantities for stator (denoted by subscript s):
e
s base
= peak value rated line-to-neutral voltage, V
i
s base
= peak value of rated line current, A
f
base
= rated frequency, Hz
The base values of the remaining quantities are automatically set and depend on
the above as follows:

base
= 2 f
base
, electrical radians / sec.

m base
=
base
(
f
p
2
) mechanical radians / sec.
Z
s base
= e
s base
/ i
s base
, ohms
L
s base
= Z
s base
/
base
, henrys

s base
= L
s base
i
s base
= (Z
s base
/
base
) i
s base
= e
s base
/
base
, weber-turns
3-phase VA
base
= 3 E
RMS base
I
RMS base
= 3 (e
s base
/ 2 ) (i
s base
/ 2 )
=
2
3
e
s base
i
s base
, volt-amperes
Torque
base
=
base m
base

VA phase - 3
=
2
3

s base

base
i
s base

base m

1

=
2
3

2
p
f

s base
i
s base
, newton-meters
(78)
4.2 Per Unit Stator Voltage Equations
From equation (65)
e
d
= p
d
-
q

r
- R
a
i
d
. Dividing throughout by e
s base
and noting that
e
s base
= Z
s base
i
s base
=
s base

base


Expressed in per unit notation
e
d pu
=
base

1
p
d pu
-
q pu

r pu
- R
a pu
i
d pu
(79)
The unit of time in the above equation is seconds. Time can also be expressed in
per unit, taking the base time as the time required for the rotor to move through
one electrical radian at synchronous speed.
base s base s
d a
base base s
r q
base base s
d
base s
d
i Z
i R


)


( p
e
e
=
Knowing
base
is the electrical radian per second
t
base
=
base

1
; Then p
pu
=
pu
t d
d
=
t d
d
t
base
=
base

1
p
The above equation becomes
e
d pu
= p
pu

d pu
-
q pu

r pu
- R
a pu
i
d pu
(80)
Comparing eq.(65) and eq.(80), we see that the form of the original equation is
unchanged, when all quantities involved are expressed in per unit. Similarly the
per unit form of equations (66) and (67) are
e
q pu
= p
pu

q pu
+
d pu

r pu
- R
a pu
i
q pu
(81)


e
0 pu
= p
pu

0 pu
- R
a pu
i
q pu
(82)
4.3 Per Unit Rotor Voltage Equations
From eq.(39) e
fd
= p
fd
+ R
fd
i
fd
, dividing throughout by
e
fd base
= Z
fd base
i
fd base
=
fd base

base
, the per unit field voltage equation may be
written as
e
fd pu
= p
pu

fd pu
+ R
fd pu
i
fd pu
(83)
Similarly, the per unit forms of equations (40) and (41) are
0 = p
pu

kd pu
+ R
kd pu
i
kd pu
(84)
0 = p
pu

kq pu
+ R
kq pu
i
kq pu
(85)
The above equations show the form of rotor circuit voltage equations. However,
we have not yet developed a basis for the choice of the rotor base quantities.
4.4 Per Unit Stator Flux Linkage Equations
Stator flux linkage equations are:

d
= - L
d
i
d
+ L
afd
i
fd
+ L
akd
i
kd
(56)
q
= - L
q
i
q
+ L
akq
i
kq
(57)
0
= - L
0
i
0
(58)
Dividing by
s base
and noting that
s base
= L
s base
i
s base
the per unit form of
equations (56), (57) and (58) may be written as

d pu
= - L
d pu
i
d pu
+ L
afd pu
i
fd pu
+ L
akd pu
i
kd pu
(86)

q pu
= - L
q pu
i
q pu
+ L
akq pu
i
kq pu
(87)

0 pu
= - L
0 pu
i
0 pu
(88)
where by definition
L
afd pu
=
base s base s
base fd afd
i L
i L
(89)
L
akd pu
=
base s base s
base kd akd
i L
i L
(90)
L
akq pu
=
base s base s
base kq akq
i L
i L
(91)
4.5 Per Unit Rotor Flux Linkage Equations
Rotor flux linkage equations are:

fd
= L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
fkd
i
kd

2
3
L
afd
i
d
(60)

kd
= L
fkd
i
fd
+ L
kkd
i
kd

2
3
L
akd
i
d
(61)

kq
= L
kkq
i
kq
-
2
3
L
akq
i
q
(62)
Dividing eq. (60) by
fd base
and noting that
fd base
= L
fd base
i
fd base
, dividing eq.
(61) by
kd base
and noting that
kd base
= L
kd base
i
kd base
and dividing eq. (62) by

kq base
and noting that
kq base
= L
kq base
i
kq base
the per unit form of equations
(60), (61) and (62) may be written as

fd pu
= L
ffd pu
i
fd pu
+ L
fkd pu
i
kd pu
L
fda pu
i
d pu
(92)

kd pu
= L
kdf pu
i
fd pu
+ L
kkd pu
i
kd pu
L
kda pu
i
d pu
(93)

kq pu
= L
kkq pu
i
kq pu
- L
kqa pu
i
q pu
(94)
where by definition
L
fkd pu
=
base fd base fd
base kd fkd
i L
i L
(rotor to rotor) (95)
L
fda pu
=
2
3

base fd base fd
base s afd
i L
i L
(rotor to stator) (96)
L
kdf pu
=
base kd base kd
base fd fkd
i L
i L
(rotor to rotor) (97)
L
kda pu
=
2
3

base kd base kd
base s akd
i L
i L
(rotor to stator) (98)
L
kqa pu
=
2
3

base kq base kq
base s akq
i L
i L
(rotor to stator) (99)
By appropriate choice of per unit system, we have eliminated the factor 3/2 in the
rotor flux linkage equations. However, we have not yet tied down the values of
the rotor base voltages and currents, which we will proceed to do next.
4.6 Per Unit System for the Rotor
The rotor circuit base quantities will be chosen so as to make the flux linkage
equations simple by satisfying the following:
(a) The per unit mutual inductances between different windings (stator, fd, kd
and kq) are to be reciprocal i.e.
L
afd pu
= L
fda pu
; L
akd pu
= L
kda pu
; L
akq pu
= L
kqa pu
; L
fkd pu
= L
kdf pu

This will allow the synchronous machine model to be represented by equivalent
circuits.
(b) All per unit mutual inductances between stator and rotor circuits in each axis
are to be equal; i.e. L
ad pu
= L
afd pu
= L
akd pu
and L
aq pu
= L
akq pu

To satisfy L
afd pu
= L
fda pu
, referring to equations (89) and (96)
base s base s
base fd afd
i L
i L
=
2
3

base fd base fd
base s afd
i L
i L
i.e.
L
fd base
(i
fd base
)
2
=
2
3
L
s base
(i
s base
)
2

Multiplying by
base
and noting that Li = e
e
fd base
i
fd base
=
2
3
e
s base
i
s base
= 3-phase VA base for stator (100)
Similarly, to make L
akd pu
= L
kda pu
and L
akq pu
= L
kqa pu
, required conditions are
e
kd base
i
kd base
=
2
3
e
s base
i
s base
(101)
e
kq base
i
kq base
=
2
3
e
s base
i
s base
(102)
Finally, to make L
fkd pu
= L
kdf pu
, referring to equations (95) and (97)

base fd base fd
base kd fkd
i L
i L
=
base kd base kd
base fd fkd
i L
i L
i.e.
L
kd base
(i
kd base
)
2
= L
fd base
(i
fd base
)
2

Multiplying by
base
and noting that Li = e
e
kd base
i
kd base
= e
fd base
i
fd base
(103)
Thus to make the mutual impedances to be reciprocal, it must be ensured that the
Volt Ampere base for all rotor circuits must be same and equal to the stator
three-phase VA base.
So far, we have specified only the product of base voltage and base current for
the rotor circuits. The next step is to specify either the base voltage or the base
current for those circuits.
The stator self inductances L
d pu
and L
q pu
are associated with the total flux
linkages due to currents i
d
and i
q
respectively. They can be split into two parts:
the leakage inductance due to flux that does not link any rotor circuit and the
mutual inductance due to flux that links the rotor circuits. Thus
L
d pu
= L
pu
+ L
ad pu
and (104)
L
q pu
= L
pu
+ L
aq pu
(105)
In order make all the per unit mutual inductances between the stator and circuits
in the d-axis equal, i.e. to make L
ad pu
= L
afd pu
= L
akd pu
, it follows that
L
ad pu
=
base s
ad
L
L
= L
afd pu
=
base s base s
base fd afd
i L
i L
= L
akd pu
=
base s base s
base kd akd
i L
i L
. Therefore
i
fd base
=
afd
ad
L
L
i
s base
(106)
i
kd base
=
akd
ad
L
L
i
s base
(107)
Similarly, to make the per unit mutual inductances between the stator and circuit
in q-axis equal i.e to make L
aq pu
= L
akq pu
, it follows that
L
aq pu
=
base s
aq
L
L
= L
akq pu
=
base s base s
base kq akq
i L
i L
Thus
i
kq base
=
akq
aq
L
L
i
s base
(108)
This completes the choice of rotor base quantities.
4.7 Per Unit Power and Torque
From equation (69), the instantaneous power at the machine terminal is
P
t
=
2
3
( e
d
i
d
+ e
q
i
q
+ 2 e
0
i
0
) (69)
Dividing by the three-phase VA = (3/2) e
s base
i
s base
, the expression for the per unit
power may be written as
P
t pu
= e
d pu
i
d pu
+ e
q pu
i
q pu
+ 2 e
0 pu
i
0 pu
(109)
Similarly, with the base torque =
2
3

2
p
f

s base
i
s base
, the per unit form of equation
(71), given by, the air-gap torque T
e
=
2
3
(
d
i
q

q
i
d
)
2
P
f
, is
T
e pu
=
d pu
i
q pu

q pu
i
d pu
(110)
4.8 Summary of Per Unit Equations
Stator Base quantities
3-phase VA
base
= volt-ampere rating of machine, VA
e
s base
= peak line-to-neutral rated voltage, V
i
s base
= peak rated line current =
base s
base
e (3/2)
VA phase - 3
A
Z
s base
= e
s base
/ i
s base
, ohms
f
base
= rated frequency, Hz

base
= 2 f
base
, electrical radians / sec.

m base
=
base
(
f
p
2
) mechanical radians / sec.
L
s base
= Z
s base
/
base
, henrys

s base
= L
s base
i
s base
= e
s base
/
base
, weber-turns
Rotor Base quantities
i
fd base
=
afd
ad
L
L
i
s base
A; i
kd base
=
akd
ad
L
L
i
s base
A; i
kq base
=
akq
aq
L
L
i
s base
A
e
fd base
=
base fd
base
i
VA phase - 3
V
Z
fd base
=
base fd
base fd
i
e
=
2
base fd
base
) i (
VA phase - 3
ohms
Z
kd base
=
2
base kd
base
) i (
VA phase - 3
ohms
Z
kq base
=
2
base kq
base
) i (
VA phase - 3
ohms
L
fd base
=
base
base fd

Z
H; L
kd base
=
base
base kd

Z
H; L
kq base
=
base
base kq

Z
H
t
base
=
base

1
sec.
T
base
=
base m
base

VA phase - 3
N-m
Complete set performance equations in per unit
In view of the per unit system chosen, in per unit
L
afd
= L
fda
= L
akd
= L
kda
= L
ad
L
akq
= L
kqa
= L
aq

L
fkd
= L
kdf

This means that we will have only L
ad
, L
aq
and L
fkd
as mutual inductances.
In the following equations, two q-axis amortisseur circuits are considered, and
the subscripts 1q and 2q are used (in place of kq) to identify them. Only one d-
axis amortisseur circuits is considered and it is identified by the subscripts 1d.
Since all quantities are in per unit, we drop the subscript pu.
Per unit stator and rotor voltage equations
e
d
= p
d
-
q

r
- R
a
i
d
(111) e
fd
= p
fd
+ R
fd
i
fd
(114)
e
q
= p
q
+
d

r
- R
a
i
q
(112) 0

= p
1d
+ R
1d
i
1d
(115)
e
0
= p
0
- R
a
i
0
(113) 0

= p
1q
+ R
1q
i
1q
(116)
0

= p
2q
+ R
2q
i
2q
(117)
Per unit stator and rotor flux linkage equations

d
= - (L
ad
+ L

) i
d
+ L
ad
i
fd
+ L
ad
i
1d
(118)
fd
= L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
f1d
i
1d
L
ad
i
d
(121)

q
= - (L
aq
+ L

) i
q
+ L
aq
i
1q
+ L
aq
i
2q
(119)
1d
= L
f1d
i
fd
+ L
11d
i
1d
L
ad
i
d
(122)

0
= - L
0
i
0
(120)
1q
= L
11q
i
1q
+ L
aq
i
2q
- L
aq
i
q
(123)

2q
= L
aq
i
1q
+ L
22q
i
2q
- L
aq
i
q
(124)
The above equations in matrix form are
(
(
(

0
q
d

=
(
(
(

+
+
0 0 0 0 L 0 0
L L 0 0 0 ) L (L 0
0 0 L L 0 0 ) L (L
0
aq aq aq
ad ad ad

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

2q
1q
1d
fd
0
q
d
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
(124 a)
(
(
(
(
(

2q
1q
1d
fd

=
(
(
(
(
(

22q aq aq
aq 11q aq
11d f1d ad
f1d ffd ad
L L 0 0 L 0
L L 0 0 L 0
0 0 L L 0 L
0 0 L L 0 L

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

2q
1q
1d
fd
q
d
i
i
i
i
i
i
(124 b)
Per unit air-gap torque equation
T
e
=
d
i
q

q
i
d
(125)

In writing equations (123) and (124), we have assumed that the per unit mutual
inductance L
12q
is equal to L
aq
. This implies that the stator and rotor circuits in the
q-axis all link a single mutual flux represented by L
aq
. This is acceptable because
the rotor circuits represent the overall rotor body effects, and actual windings
with physically measurable voltages and currents do not exist.
Per unit reactances
If the frequency of the stator quantities is equal to the base frequency, the per
unit reactance of a winding is numerically equal to the per unit inductance. For
example, X
d
= 2 f L
d
ohms. Dividing both sides by Z
s base
= 2 f
base
L
s base
,
base s
d
Z
X
=
base
f 2
f 2

base s
d
L
L

When f = f
base
,
base s
d
Z
X
=
base s
d
L
L
i.e. X
d pu
= L
d pu
5. EQUVALENT CIRCUITS FOR DIRECT AND QUADRATURE AXES
While equations (111) to (124) can be used directly to determine synchronous
machine performance, it is a common practice to use equivalent circuits to
provide a visual description of the machine model.
Before we develop an equivalent circuit to represent complete electrical
characteristics of the machine, first let us consider only d-axis flux linkage. d-axis
stator and rotor flux linkage equations are:

d
= - (L
ad
+ L

) i
d
+ L
ad
i
fd
+ L
ad
i
1d
(118)

fd
= L
ffd
i
fd
+ L
f1d
i
1d
L
ad
i
d
(121)

1d
= L
f1d
i
fd
+ L
11d
i
1d
L
ad
i
d
(122)
L
ad
i
d
i
fd
i
1d
L
ffd
L
f1d
L

L
f1d
- L
ad
L
11d
L
f1d

1d

fd
Fig. 14 The d-axis equivalent circuit illustrating
-
i relationship

The matrix form of above three equations is:
(
(
(

1d
fd
d

=
(
(
(

+
11d f1d ad
f1d ffd ad
ad ad ad
L L L
L L L
L L ) L L (


(
(
(

1d
fd
d
i
i
i
(126)
Figure 14 shows the equivalent circuit that represent the above three equations.
The currents i
d
, i
fd
and i
1d
appear as loop currents






A similar equivalent circuit can be developed for q-axis flux linkage and current
relationship. At this point, it is helpful to introduce the following rotor circuit per
unit inductances.
L
fd
= L
ffd
- L
f1d
(127)
L
1d
= L
11d
- L
f1d
(128)
L
1q
= L
11q
- L
aq
(129)
L
2q
= L
22q
- L
aq
(130)
Equivalent circuits representing the complete characteristics, including the
voltage equations, are shown in Fig. 15. In these equivalent circuits, voltages as
well as flux linkages appear. Therefore, flux linkages are shown in terms of their
time derivatives.
In the d-axis equivalent circuit, the series inductance L
f1d
L
ad
represents the flux
linking both the field winding and the amortisseurs, but not the armature. It is a
common practice to neglect this series inductance on the grounds that the flux
linking the damper circuit is very nearly equal to that linking the armature,
because the damper windings are near the air-gap. In such case

r

q
e
d
p
d
p
1d
p
fd
L
f1d
- L
ad
L

R
a
+

+

+

+

+

+

-

-
-

-

-

-

i
d
i
fd
i
1d
(a) d-axis equivalent circuit

r

d
e
q
p
q
p
1q
p
2q
L

R
a
+

+

+

+

+

-

-

-
-

-

i
q
i
2q
i
1q
L
aq
L
ad
L
1d
L
fd
R
fd
R
1d
e
fd
R
1q
L
1q
R
2q
L
2q
(b) q-axis equivalent circuit

Fig. 15 Complete d-and q-axis equivalent circuits

L

L
f1d
= L
ad
(130 a)
Then from eq. (127) L
ffd
= L
fd
+ L
ad
(130 b)













Example 1
A 555 MVA, 24 kV, 0.9 p.f., 60 Hz, 3-phase, 2 pole synchronous generator has the
following inductances and resistances associated with the stator and field
windings:

aa
= 3.2758 + 0.0458 cos (2) mH

ab
= - 1.6379 0.0458 cos (2 + /3) mH

afd
= 40 cos mH
L
ffd
= 576.92 mH
R
a
= 0.0031
R
fd
= 0.0715
a. Determine L
d
and L
q
in henrys.
b. If the stator leakage L

is 0.4129 mH, determine L

ad
and L
aq
in henrys.
c. Using the machine rated values as the base values for the stator quantities,
determine the per unit values of the followings:
L

, L
ad
, L
aq
, L
d
, L
q
, L
afd
, L
ffd
, L
fd
, R
a
and R
fd
.
Solution
a.
L
d
= L
aa0
+ L
ab0
+
2
3
L
aa2
= 3.2758 + 1.6379 +
2
3
x 0.0458 = 4.9825 mH
L
q
= L
aa0
+ L
ab0
-
2
3
L
aa2
= 3.2758 + 1.6379 -
2
3
x 0.0458 = 4.8451 mH
b.
L
ad
= L
d
- L

= 4.9825 0.4129 = 4.5696 mH

L
aq
= L
q
- L

= 4.8451 0.4129 = 4.4322 mH

c.
3-phase VA base = 555 x 10
6
VA
e
base
=
3
10 x 2 x 24
3
= 19.596 x 10
3
V;
i
base
=
base s
base
e (3/2)
VA phase - 3
=
3
6
10 x 19.596 X 1.5
10 x 555
= 18881.5 A
Z
base
=
18881.4
10 x 19.596
3
= 1.0378

base
= 2 x 60 = 377 elec, rad. / sec.
L
s base
=
377
10 x 1.0378
3
= 2.753 mH
i
fd base
=
afd
ad
L
L
i
s base
=
40
4.5696
x 18881.5 = 2158 A
e
fd base
=
2158
10 x 555
6
= 257.183 x 10
3
V
Z
fd base
=
2158
10 x 257.183
3
= 119.18
L
fd base
=
377
119.18
x 10
3
= 316.12 mH
The per unit values are:
L
pu
=
2.753
0.4129
= 0.15; L
ad pu
=
2.753
4.5696
= 1.66; L
aq pu
=
2.753
4.4322
= 1.61
L
d pu
= L
ad pu
+ L
pu
= 1.66 + 0.15 = 1.81
L
q pu
= L
aq pu
+ L
pu
= 1.61 + 0.15 = 1.76
L
afd pu
=
base s base s
base fd afd
i L
i L
=
18881.5 x 2.753
2158 x 40
= 1.66
L
ffd pu
=
base fd
ffd
L
L
=
316.12
576.92
= 1.825
L
fd pu
= L
ffd
L
ad
Refer eq. (130 b)
= 1.825 1.66 = 0.165
R
a pu
=
1.03784
0.0031
= 0.003; R
fd pu
=
119.18
0.0715
= 0.0006
6.1 Voltage, Current and Flux Linkage Relationships
As has been shown in Section 3, the dq0 transformation applied to balanced
steady-state armature phase currents results in steady direct currents. This is
also true for stator voltages and flux linkages. Since rotor quantities are also
constant under steady state, all time derivatives terms drop out of machine
equations. In addition, zero-sequence components are absent and
r
=
s
= 1 pu.
With p terms set to zero in equations (115), (116) and (117),
R
id
i
1d
= R
iq
i
1q
= R
2q
i
2q
= 0
Therefore, all amortisseurs currents are zero. The per unit machine equations
(111) to (124), under balanced steady-state conditions, become
e
d
=

-
q

r
- R
a
i
d
(131)
e
q
=
d

r
- R
a
i
q
(132)
e
fd
= R
fd
i
fd
(133)

d
= - L
d
i
d
+ L
ad
i
fd
(134)

q
= - L
q
i
q
(135)

fd
= L
ffd
i
fd
L
ad
i
d
(136)

1d
= L
f1d
i
fd
L
ad
i
d
(137)

1q
=
1q
= - L
aq
i
q
(138)
Field current
From equation (134),
i
fd
=
ad
d d d
L
i L +
; But from eqn.(132),
d
=
r
q a q

i R e +
. Therefore,
i
fd
=
ad
d d
r
q a q
L
i L

i R e
+
+
=
ad r
d d r q a q
L
i L i R e + +

Replacing the product of synchronous speed and inductance L by the
corresponding reactance X,
i
fd
=
ad
d d q a q
X
i X i R e + +
(139)
The above equation is useful in computing the steady-state value of the field
current for any specified operating condition. The inductances/reactances
appearing in equations (131) to (139) are saturated values.
6.2 Phasor Representation
For balanced steady-state operation, the stator phase voltages may be written as
e
a
= E
m
cos(
s
t + ) (140)
e
b
= E
m
cos(
s
t -
3
2
+ ) (141)
e
c
= E
m
cos(
s
t +
3
2
+ ) (142)
where
s
is the angular frequency and is the phase angle of e
a
with respect to
time origin.
Applying dq transformation gives
e
d
= E
m
cos(
s
t + - ) (143)
e
q
= E
m
sin(
s
t + - ) (144)
The angle by which d-axis leads the axis of phase a is given by
=
r
t +
0
(145)
where
0
is the value of at t = 0.
With
r
equals to
s
at synchronous speed. substitution for in eqns. (143) and
(144) yields
e
d
= E
m
cos(-
0
) (146)
e
q
= E
m
sin(-
0
) (147)
In the above two equations, E
m
is the peak value of phase voltage. In steady-state
analysis, we are more interested in rms values and phase displacements. Using
E
t
to denote per unit rms value of armature voltage and noting that in per unit,
rms and peak values are equal,
e
d
= E
t
cos(-
0
) (148)
e
q
= E
t
sin(-
0
) (149)
Fig. 16 Representation of dq components of armature voltage and current as phasors

(a) Voltage components

(b) Current components

d-axis
q-axis
e
d
e
q
E
t

i
-

d-axis
q-axis
E
t

i
q
i
d
I
t
It is seen that dq components of armature voltage are scalar quantities. However,
in view of the trigonometric relationship between them, they can be expressed as
phasors in complex plane having d- and q-axes as coordinates. This is illustrated
in Figure 16. Thus the armature terminal voltage may be expressed in complex
form as
E
t
= e
d
+ j e
q
(150)
By denoting
i
as the angle by which the q-axis leads the phasor E
t
, equations
(148) and (149) become






e
d
= E
t
sin
i
(151)
e
q
= E
t
cos
i
(152)
Similarly, the dq components of the armature terminal current I
t
can be expressed
as phasors. If is the power factor angle, we can write
i
d
= I
t
sin(
i
+ ) (153)
i
q
= I
t
cos(
i
+ ) (154)
and
I
t
= i
d
+ j i
q
(155)
From the above analysis, it is clear that in phasor form with dq axes as reference,
the rms armature phase current and voltage can be treated the same way as is
done with phasor representation of alternating voltages and currents. This
provides the link between the steady-state values of dq components of armature
quantities and the phasor representation used in conventional ac circuit analysis.
The relationships between dq components of armature terminal voltage and
current are defined by equations (131), (132), (134) and (135).
e
d
=

-
q

r
- R
a
i
d
(131)
d
= - L
d
i
d
+ L
ad
i
fd
(134)
e
q
=
d

r
- R
a
i
q
(132)
q
= - L
q
i
q
(135)
Thus e
d
= -
r

q
R
a
i
d
=
r
L
q
i
q
R
a
i
d
= X
q
i
q
R
a
i
d
(156)
e
q
=
r

d
R
a
i
q
= -
r
L
d
i
d
+
r
L
ad
i
fd
R
a
i
q
= - X
d
i
d
+ X
ad
i
fd
R
a
i
q
(157)
The reactances X
d
and X
q
are called the direct- and quadrature-axis synchronous
reactances, respectively.
We have not yet developed a means of identifying the d- and q-axis positions
relative to E
t
. In order to assist us in this regard, let us define a voltage E
q
as
E
q
= E
t
+ (R
a
+ jX
q
) I
t
= (e
d
+ j e
q
) + (R
a
+ jX
q
) (i
d
+ j i
q
) (158)
Using eqs. (156) and (157), the above can be simplified as
E
q
= X
q
i
q
R
a
i
d
+ j(- X
d
i
d
+ X
ad
i
fd
R
a
i
q
) + R
a
i
d
X
q
i
q
+j(X
q
i
d
+ R
a
i
q
)
= j[ X
ad
i
fd
( X
d
X
q
) i
d
] (159)
d-axis
q-axis
E
t
I
t
E
q

i
R
a
I
t
X
q
I
t
Fig. 17 Phasor E
q
in dq complex plane
This means that E
q
is in line with q-axis. The corresponding phasor diagram is
shown in Fig. 17.
As seen by eq. (158) E
q
= E
t
+ (R
a
+ jX
q
) I
t
the position of q-axis with respect to
E
t
can be identified by computing E
q
, the voltage behind R
a
+ jX
q
.








6.3 Rotor Angle
Under no load or open-circuit condition, i
d
= i
q
= 0. Substituting in equations

d
= - L
d
i
d
+ L
ad
i
fd
(134)

q
= - L
q
i
q
(135)

d
= L
ad
i
fd
and
q
= 0 and hence from equations
e
d
=

-
q

r
- R
a
i
d
(131)
e
q
=
d

r
- R
a
i
q
(132),
e
d
= 0 and e
q
= L
ad
i
fd

r
= X
ad
i
fd
.
Therefore
E
t
= e
d
+ j e
q

= j X
ad
i
fd
(160)
Thus under no-load conditions, E
t
has only q-axis component and hence as seen
from Fig. 17,
i
= 0. As the machine is loaded,
i
increases. Therefore, the angle
i

is referred to as the internal rotor angle or load angle.
The angle
i
represents the angle by which the q-axis leads the stator terminal
voltage phasor E
t
, and is given by (Fig. 16 a)
= 90
0
- (
0
) (161)
where is the phase angle of e
a
and
0
is the value of with respect to the time
origin. Therefore,
i
depends on the angle between the stator and rotor magnetic
fields. For any given machine power output, either or
0
may be arbitrarily
chosen, but not both.
0
t
0 E Z
R
a
X
s
i q
E Z
Fig. 18 Steady-state equivalent circuit with saliency neglected
6.4 Steady-State Equivalent Circuit
If saliency is neglected, X
d
= X
q
= X
s
where X
s
is the synchronous reactance.
Therefore,
E
q
= E
t
+ (R
a
+ jX
s
) I
t
(162)
With X
d
= X
q
, from equation E
q
= = j[ X
ad
i
fd
( X
d
X
q
) i
d
] (159)
the magnitude of E
q
is given by
q
E = X
ad
i
fd
(163)
The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 18. The resistance R
a
is
usually very small and may be neglected.





The voltage
q
E may be considered as effective internal voltage. Since it is equal
in magnitude to X
ad
i
fd
it represents the excitation voltage. The synchronous
reactance X
s
accounts for the flux produced by the stator circuit, i.e., the
armature reaction. For the round rotor machine, X
d
is nearly equal to X
q
and
therefore the above equivalent circuit provides satisfactory representation.
For salient pole machine, X
d
is not equal to X
q
. The effect of saliency is, however,
not very significant so far as the relationships between terminal voltage, armature
current, power and excitation over the normal operating range are concerned.
The approximate equivalent circuit often provides sufficient insight into steady-
state characteristics. The effect of saliency become significant, only at small
excitation.
Active and reactive power
Complex power S = E
t
I
t
*
= (e
d
+ je
q
) ( i
d
ji
q
). Thus
Active power P
t
= e
d
i
d
+ e
q
i
q
(164)
Reactive power Q
t
= e
q
i
d
e
d
i
q
(165)
Steady-state torque is given by
T
e
=
d
i
q

q
i
d

= (e
d
i
d
+ e
q
i
q
) + R
a
(i
d
2
+ i
q
2
) = P
t
+ R
a
I
t
2
(166)
6.5 Procedure for Computing Steady-State Values
The following steps summarize the procedure for computing the initial steady-
state values of machine variables as a function of specified terminal quantities. It
is assumed that all quantities are expressed in per unit.
(a) Normally, terminal active power P
t
, reactive power Q
t
, and magnitude of E
t

are specified. The corresponding terminal current
t
I and power factor angle
are computed as follows:
t
I =
t
2
t
2
t
E
Q P +

= cos
-1
(
t t
t
I E
P
)
X
q
I
t
R
a
I
t
I
t

i




E
q
q-axis

d-axis

Fig. 19 Steady-state phasor diagram
E
t
(b) The next step is to compute the internal rotor angle
i
. Since E
q
lies along the
q-axis, as illustrated in Fig. 19, the internal angle is given by

i
= tan
-1
(
sin I X cos I R E
sin I R cos I X
t q t a t
t a t q
+ +

)
(c) Knowing
i
, the dq components of stator voltage and currents are given by
e
d
=
t
E sin
i
e
q
=
t
E cos
i

i
d
=
t
I sin (
i
+ ) i
q
=
t
I cos (
i
+ )







(d) The remaining machine quantities, in per unit, are computed as follows:

d
= e
q
+ R
a
i
q

q
= - e
d
- R
a
i
d

i
fd
=
ad
d d q a q
X
i X i R e + +

e
fd
= R
fd
i
fd

fd
= (L
ad
+ L
fd
) i
fd
L
ad
i
d

1d
= L
ad
( i
fd
i
d
)

1q
=
2q
= - L
aq
i
q

T
e
= P
t
+ R
a

2
t
I
Example 2
The following are the parameters in per unit on machine rating of a 555 MVA, 24
kV, 0.9 p.f., 60 Hz, 3600 rpm turbine generator:
L
ad
= 1.66 L
aq
= 1.61 L

= 0.15 R
a
= 0.003
L
fd
= 0.165 R
fd
= 0.0006 L
1d
= 0.1713 R
1d
= 0.0284
L
1q
= 0.7252 R
1q
= 0.00619 L
2q
= 0.125 R
2q
= 0.02368
L
fkd
is assumed to be equal to L
ad
.
(a) When the generator is delivering rated MVA at 0.9 p.f. lagging and rated
terminal voltage, compute the following:
(i) Internal angle
i
in electrical degrees
(ii) Per unit values of e
d
, e
q
, i
d
, i
q
, i
1d
, i
1q
, i
2q
, i
fd
, e
fd
,
fd
,
1d
,
1q
,
2q
.
(iii) Air-gap T
e
in per unit and newton-meters.
Assume that the effect of magnetic saturation at the given operating condition is
to reduce L
ad
and L
aq
to 83.5% of the values given above.
(b) Compute the internal angle
i
and the field current i
fd
for the above
operating condition, using the approximate equivalent circuit. Neglect R
a
.
Solution
(a) With the given operating condition, the per unit values of terminal quantities
are
P
t
= 0.9, Q
t
= 0.436,
t
E = 1.0,
t
I = 1.0, = 25.84
0

The saturated values of the inductances are
L
ad
= 0.835 x 1.66 = 1.386; L
aq
= 0.835 x1.61 = 1.344
L
d
= L
ad
+ L

= 1.386 + 0.15 = 1.536; L

q
= L
aq
+ L

= 1.344 + 0.15 = 1.494

(i)
i
= tan
-1
(
sin I X cos I R E
sin I R cos I X
t q t a t
t a t q
+ +

)
= tan
-1
(
0.436 x 1.0 x 1.494 0.9 x 1.0 x 0.003 1.0
0.436 x 1.0 x 0.003 0.9 x 1.0 x 1.494
+ +

) = tan
-1
(0.812)
= 39.1 electrical degrees
ii) e
d pu
=
t
E sin
i
= 1.0 x sin 39.1
0
= 0.631
e
q pu
=
t
E cos
i
= 1.0 x cos 39.1
0
= 0.776
i
d pu
=
t
I sin (
i
+ ) = 1.0 x sin (39.1 + 25.84) = 0.906
i
q pu
=
t
I cos (
i
+ ) = 1.0 x cos (39.1 + 25.84) = 0.423
i
fd pu
=
ad
d d q a q
X
i X i R e + +
=
1.386
0.906 x 1.536 0.423 x 0.003 0.776 + +
= 1.565
e
fd pu
= R
fd
i
fd
= 0.0006 x 1.565 = 0.000939

fd pu
= (L
ad
+ L
fd
) i
fd
L
ad
i
d
= (1.386 + 0.165) x 1.565 1.386 x 0.906 = 1.17

1d pu
= L
ad
( i
fd
i
d
) = 1.386 ( 1.565 0.906) = 0.913

1q pu
=
2q pu
= - L
aq
i
q
= - 1.344 x 0.423 = - 0.569
Under steady state, i
1d
= i
1q
= i
2q
= 0
(iii) Air-gap torque T
e pu
= P
t
+ R
a

2
t
I = 0.9 + 0.003 x 1.0
2
= 0.903
T
base
=
base m
base

VA phase - 3
N-m =
60 x 2
10 x 555
6
t
= 1.472 x 10
6
N-m
T
e
= 0.903 x 1.472 x 10
6
= 1.329 x 10
6
N-m
(b) Using the saturated value of X
ad


q
E = X
ad
x i
fd
= 1.386 x i
fd

and X
s
= X
ad
+ X

= 1.386 + 0.15 = 1.536

With E
t
as reference
E
q
= E
t
+ j X
s
I
t
= 1.0 + j 1.536 (0.9 j 0.436) = 1.67 + j 1.382 = 2.17
0
39.6 Z

i
= 39.6 electrical degrees
Therefore i
fd pu
=
1.386
2.17
= 1.566
The values of
i
and i
fd pu
computed using the approximate representation are
seen to be in good agreement with the accurate calculation. This is to be
expected, since X
q
is nearly equal to X
d
and we are considering rated operating
condition.
Trigonometric identities
sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin (A-B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
cos (A+B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
cos (A-B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
2 sin A cos B = sin (A+B) + sin (A-B)
2 cos A sin B = sin (A+B) - sin (A-B)
2 cos A cos B = cos (A+B) + cos (A-B)
2 sin A sin B = cos (A-B) - cos (A+B)
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos
2
A sin
2
A
2 cos
2
A = 1 + cos 2A
2 sin
2
A = 1 - cos 2A
sin A + sin (A -
3
2
) + sin (A +
3
2
) = 0
cos A + cos (A -
3
2
) + cos (A +
3
2
) = 0
sin A cos A + sin (A -
3
2
) cos (A -
3
2
) + sin (A +
3
2
) cos (A +
3
2
) = 0
sin
2
A + sin
2
(A -
3
2
) + sin
2
(A +
3
2
) =
2
3

cos
2
A + cos
2
(A -
3
2
) + cos
2
(A +
3
2
) =
2
3

sin A cos B + sin (A -
3
2
) cos (B -
3
2
) + sin (A +
3
2
) cos (B +
3
2
)
=
2
3
sin (A B)
sin A sin B + sin (A -
3
2
) sin (B -
3
2
) + sin (A +
3
2
) sin (B +
3
2
)
=
2
3
cos (A B)
cos A cos B + cos (A -
3
2
) cos (B -
3
2
) + cos (A +
3
2
) cos (B +
3
2
)
=
2
3
cos (A B)