Chapter

TWO

Foundations of Individual Behavior

Formation of this chapter

Intelligence is but one characteristic that people bring with them when they join an organization. In this chapter we look at individual differences in the form of
Ability (which includes intelligence) and Biographical characteristics (age, gender, race, tenure) affect employee performance and satisfaction How people learn behaviors and What management can do to shape those behaviors.

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Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence

Ability An individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

Intellectual Ability The capacity to do mental activities.

Multiple Intelligences Intelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

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Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Number aptitude: speedy and accurate arithmetic
Verbal comprehension: understands what is read or heard Perceptual speed: identify visual similarities and differences Inductive reasoning: identify logical sequence in a problem

Deductive reasoning: use logic and assess the implication of an

argument Spatial visualization: imagine how object would look if position changed Memory: retain and recall past experience
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Physical Abilities
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

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Nine Physical Abilities

Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength 2. Trunk strength 3. Static strength 4. Explosive strength

Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility 6. Dynamic flexibility

Other Factors
7. Body coordination 8. Balance 9. Stamina
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Source: Adapted from HRMagazine published by the Society for Human Resource Management, Alexandria, VA.

E X H I B I T 22

The Ability-Job Fit

Ability-Job Fit

Employees Abilities

Jobs Ability Requirements

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Biographical Characteristics
Biographical Characteristics
Personal characteristicssuch as

Age: Job performance declines with age

Workforce is aging Most US workers no longer have to retire at age of 70 Gender: No difference in problem solving ability, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability or learning ability

Race: if same race there is tendency for favor colleagues in job, performance evaluation, promotion etc
Tenure: impact of seniority on job

Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

Learning
Involves change Is relatively permanent

Is acquired through experience

Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in 1900s experimented To teach dogs to salivate in response to ringing bell Key Concepts: Unconditioned stimulus: meat (caused salivation) Unconditioned response: increase in salivation Conditioned stimulus: bell (artificial stimulus) Conditioned response: salivation in reaction to bell
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(Paradigm=Example)

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Artist unknown

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Theories of Learning (contd)

Operant Conditioning: people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they dont want
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Key Concepts by Skinner (Harvard psychologist) Reflexive (unlearned) behavior Conditioned (learned / operant) behavior tendency to repeat behavior is influenced by Reinforcement Creating pleasing consequence, following behavior
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Theories of Learning (contd)

Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct experience.

Key Concepts
Attentional processes Retention processes Motor reproduction processes Reinforcement processes

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Theories of Learning (contd)

Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Key Concepts
Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

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Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior.

Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs. (look busy to avoid being called)

Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior.

Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation. (ignore raising hands for question)
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

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Schedules of Reinforcement (contd) Rewards can also be classified as:

Fixed-Interval Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

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Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)

Compliments

Weekly pay checks

Pop Quizzes

Fixed-ratio

Piece-rate pay

Commissioned sales

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Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

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Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)

E X H I B I T 25 (contd) 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Behavior Modification
OB Mod: Emery Air Freight( now part of FedEx) (container 90%) (actual 45%)
The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.

Five Step Problem-Solving Model

1. Identify critical behaviors 2. Develop baseline data

3. Identify behavioral consequences

4. Develop and apply intervention 5. Evaluate performance improvement
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