CH 13

Building Java Programs
Chapter 13: Searching and Sorting
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education
Chapter outline
Searching and sorting in the Java class libraries

sequential and binary search sorting shuffling custom ordering with Comparators
Program efficiency

algorithm analysis complexity classes and Big-Oh notation
Implementing searching and sorting algorithms

binary search selection sort merge sort

2
Searching and sorting in the Java class libraries

reading: 13.1
Sequential search
Imagine searching for a particular word in an ArrayList of words from a book:

int index = words.indexOf(word); if (index >= 0) { System.out.println(word + " is word #" + index); } else { System.out.println(word + " is not found."); }
sequential search: One that examines each element of a list in sequence until it finds the target value or reaches the end of the list.
The indexOf method above uses a sequential search.

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ... value It was the best of times it ...
Binary search algorithm
binary search: An algorithm that searches for a value in a sorted list by repeatedly eliminating half the list from consideration.

Can be written iteratively or recursively implemented in Java as method Arrays.binarySearch in java.util package
Algorithm pseudocode (searching for a value K):

Start out with the search area being from indexes 0 to length-1. Examine the element in the middle of the search area.

If it is K, stop. Otherwise,

If it is smaller than K, eliminate the upper half of the search area. If it is larger than K, eliminate the lower half of the search area. Repeat the above examination.
5
Binary search example
Using binarySearch
Java provides two binary search methods:
Arrays.binarySearch (for an array)
// binary search on an array: int[] numbers = {-3, 2, 8, 12, 17, 29, 44, 58, 79}; int index = Arrays.binarySearch(numbers, 29); System.out.println("29 is found at index " + index);
Collections.binarySearch (for a List)

// binary search on ArrayList with the same values: int index = Collections.binarySearch(list, 29); System.out.println("29 is found at index " + index);
Note that the values in the array / list are in sorted order. If they are not, binarySearch is not guaranteed to work properly.
7
Sorting
sorting: Rearranging the values in a list into a given order (often into their natural ascending order).

One of the fundamental problems in computer science Many sorts are comparison-based (must determine order through comparison operations on the input data)
<, >, compareTo,

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
value 15 2 8 1 17 10 12 5 index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
value 1 2 5 8 10 12 15 17
Sorting in the class libraries
Java provides two sorting methods:
Arrays.sort (for an array)

// demonstrate the Arrays.sort method String[] strings = {"c", "b", "g", "h", "d", "f", "e", "a"}; System.out.println(Arrays.toString(strings)); Arrays.sort(strings); System.out.println(Arrays.toString(strings));
Output:
[c, b, g, h, d, f, e, a] [a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h]
Collections.sort (for a List)
Shuffling
shuffling: Rearranging the elements of a list into a random order.
Java has a shuffle method for a List, Collections.shuffle: String[] ranks = {"2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "10", "Jack", "Queen", "King", "Ace"}; String[] suits = {"Clubs", "Diamonds", "Hearts", "Spades"}; ArrayList<String> deck = new ArrayList<String>(); for (String rank : ranks) { // build sorted deck for (String suit : suits) { deck.add(rank + " of " + suit); } } Collections.shuffle(deck); System.out.println("Top card = " + deck.get(0));
Output (for one example run): Top card = 10 of Spades
10
Custom ordering with Comparators

reading: 13.1
11
Custom ordering
Sometimes, the default ordering is not what you want.
Example: The following code sorts the strings in a casesensitive order, so the uppercase letters come first. We may have wanted a case-insensitive ordering instead.
String[] strings = {"Foxtrot", "alpha", "echo", "golf", "bravo", "hotel", "Charlie", "DELTA"}; Arrays.sort(strings); System.out.println(Arrays.toString(strings));
Output: [Charlie, DELTA, Foxtrot, alpha, bravo, echo, golf, hotel]
You can describe a custom sort ordering by creating a class called a comparator.
12
Comparators
The Comparator interface in java.util describes a method for comparing two objects of a given type:
public interface Comparator<T> { public int compare(T o1, T o2); }
Note that Comparator is a generic interface.
T will be replaced by the type of object you are actually comparing.
The compare method's job is to decide the relative ordering of the two given objects and return an appropriate integer:

<0 0 >0
if o1 comes before o2, if o1 and o2 are equivalent, if o1 comes after o2.
13
Comparator example
The following Comparator compares Strings, ignoring case: public class CaseInsensitiveComparator implements Comparator<String> { public int compare(String s1, String s2) { return s1.toLowerCase().compareTo( s2.toLowerCase()); } }
14
Sorting with Comparators
The sorting methods shown previously can also be called with a Comparator as a second parameter.
The sorting algorithm will use that comparator to order the elements of the array or list.
String[] strings = {"Foxtrot", "alpha", "echo", "golf", "bravo", "hotel", "Charlie", "DELTA"}; Arrays.sort(strings, new CaseInsensitiveComparator()); System.out.println(Arrays.toString(strings)); [Charlie, DELTA, Foxtrot, alpha, bravo, echo, golf, hotel]
Output: [alpha, bravo, Charlie, DELTA, echo, Foxtrot, golf, hotel]
15
Program efficiency
reading: 13.2
16
Efficiency
efficiency: A measure of the computing resources used by a program, such as time, memory, or disk space. time efficiency: How quickly a program runs
"Fast enough" is often relative to the task being performed.

5 minutes to render a complex 3D scene for a movie is fast. 5 minutes to search Google is slow.
Ways to measure the efficiency of a program:

empirical analysis: Program the algorithm, run it, and time it. algorithm analysis: Applying techniques to mathematically estimate the algorithm's runtime without actually coding it.
17
Rules for algorithm analysis

Most individual statements take 1 unit of time to run. When multiple statements are executed sequentially, their runtimes are added.
When statements are executed in a loop, the runtime is multiplied by the number of repetitions of the loop.
18
More examples

Larger statements can also occur sequentially, in which case their runtimes are added. If larger statements are nested, their runtimes are multiplied.
19
Relative rates of growth
most algorithms' runtime can be expressed as a function of the input size N rate of growth: measure of how quickly the graph of a function rises
goal: distinguish between fast- and slow-growing functions
we only care about very large input sizes (for small sizes, most any algorithm is fast enough) this helps us discover which algorithms will run more quickly or slowly, for large input sizes
20
Growth rate example

Consider these graphs of functions. Perhaps each one represents an algorithm: n3 + 2n2 100n2 + 1000 Which grows faster?
21
Growth rate example

How about now?
22
Range algorithm 1
Let's examine the efficiency and growth rate of three algorithms for finding the range (difference between largest and smallest element) in an array. First algorithm (looks at all pairs of values to find which pair is the largest and smallest):
// returns the range of numbers in the given array public static int range(int[] numbers) { int maxDiff = 0; for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) { for (int j = 0; j < numbers.length; j++) { int diff = Math.abs(numbers[j] - numbers[i]); maxDiff = Math.max(maxDiff, diff); } } return maxDiff; }
23
Runtime of range 1
Observation: runtime seems to roughly quadruple when input size is doubled
24
Range algorithm 2
The first algorithm redundantly makes each comparison twice (when i <= j, when i > j).
Second, improved algorithm:

public static int range2(int[] numbers) { int maxDiff = 0; for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) { for (int j = i + 1; j < numbers.length; j++) { int diff = Math.abs(numbers[j] - numbers[i]); maxDiff = Math.max(maxDiff, diff); } } return maxDiff; }
25
Runtime of range 2
Observation: about twice as fast; same growth pattern
(runtime quadruples when input size is doubled)
26
Range algorithm 3
We can discover the largest and smallest values in a single pass over the array, rather than using many nested passes over all values. Third algorithm:
public static int range3(int[] numbers) { int max = numbers[0]; int min = max; for (int i = 1; i < numbers.length; i++) { if (numbers[i] > max) { max = numbers[i]; } else if (numbers[i] < min) { min = numbers[i]; } } return max - min; }
27
Runtime of range 3
Much faster than others Runtime doubles when input size doubles
28
Complexity classes and Big-oh notation

reading: 13.2
29
Big-Oh notation
complexity class: Category of algorithms' runtime based on relationship to input size.
Determined by the exponent of the most frequently executed line of code in the algorithm.
big-Oh notation: A shorthand for describing complexity classes.
Example: If the most frequently executed line of an algorithm runs approximately N3 times, we say the algorithm is "order N3" or O(N3) for short.
We are concerned with how the function grows when N is large. We are not picky about constant factors.
30
Hierarchy of Big-Oh
Complexity classes in increasing order of growth:

constant time logarithmic linear loglinear quadratic cubic ... exponential ...
O(1) O(log N) O(N) O(N log N) O(N2) O(N3) O(2N)
An algorithm from a lower complexity class will run much faster than one from a higher complexity class when the value of N becomes very large.
31
Program loop runtimes

for (int i = 0; i < N; i += c) <statements>;
// O(N)
Adding to the loop counter means that the loop runtime grows linearly when compared to its maximum value N.
Loop executes its body exactly N / c times. // O(log N)
for (int i = 0; i < N; i *= c) <statements>;
Multiplying the loop counter means that the maximum value N must grow exponentially to linearly increase the loop runtime; therefore, it is logarithmic.
Loop executes its body exactly logc N times. // O(N2)
for (int i = 0; i < N * N; i += c) <statements>;
The loop maximum is N2, so the runtime is quadratic.

Loop executes its body exactly (N2 / c) times.
32
More loop runtimes
Nesting loops multiplies their runtimes.

for (int i = 0; i < N; i += c) { for (int j = 0; j < N; i += c) { <statements>; } } // O(N2)
Loops in sequence add together their runtimes, which means the loop set with the larger runtime dominates.
for (int i = 0; i < N; i += c) { <statements>; } for (int i = 0; i < N; i += c) { for (int j = 0; j < N; i *= c) { <statements>; } }
// O(N)
// O(N log N)
33
Loop runtime problems
Approximate the value of the variable sum after the following code fragment, as an expression in terms of input size n. Use Big-Oh notation to describe the algorithm's overall runtime.
int sum = 0; for (int i = 1; i <= N; i *= 2) { sum++; } for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; i++) { sum++; sum++; }
34
Loop runtime problems
Approximate the value of the variable sum after the following code fragment, as an expression in terms of input size n. Use Big-Oh notation to describe the algorithm's overall runtime.
int sum = 0; for (int i = 1; i <= N; i++) { for (int j = 1; j <= i / 2; j += 2) { sum++; } }
35
Implementing binary search

reading: 13.3
36
Recall: binary search
binary search: An algorithm that searches for a value in a sorted list by repeatedly eliminating half the list from consideration.
Can be written iteratively or recursively
Algorithm pseudocode (searching for a value K):

Start out with the search area being from indexes 0 to length-1. Examine the element in the middle of the search area.

If it is K, stop. Otherwise,

If it is smaller than K, eliminate the upper half of the search area. If it is larger than K, eliminate the lower half of the search area. Repeat the above examination.
37

searching for value 16
0 1 2 3 4 7 16 20 37 38 43
min
mid (too big!)
4 5
6
max
38

0 1 2 3 4 7 16 20 37 38 43
min
mid (too small!)

max
4 5
6
39

0 1 2 3 4 7 16 20 37 38 43
min, mid, max (found it!)
4 5
6
40
Binary search pseudocode

binary search array a for value i: if all elements have been searched, result is -1. examine middle element a[mid]. if a[mid] equals i, result is mid. if a[mid] is greater than i, binary search lower half of a for i. if a[mid] is less than i, binary search upper half of a for i.
41
Binary search code
The following code implements binary search:

// Returns an // appears in // pre: array public static int min = int max = index at which the target the given input array, or -1 if not found. is sorted. int binarySearch(int[] numbers, int target) { 0; numbers.length - 1;
while (min <= max) { int mid = (max + min) / 2; if (numbers[mid] == target) { return mid; // found it! } else if (numbers[mid] < target) { min = mid + 1; // too small } else { // numbers[mid] > target max = mid - 1; // too large } } return -1; }
// not found
42
Runtime of binary search
How do we analyze the runtime of binary search? The algorithm's runtime is dominated by a while loop. Each pass of that loop cuts the search space in half.
How many times does this division in half take place?

2repetitions N repetitions log2N
43
Implementing selection sort

reading: 13.3
44
Selection sort
selection sort: orders a list of values by repetitively putting a particular value into its final position more specifically:

find the smallest value in the list switch it with the value in the first position find the next smallest value in the list switch it with the value in the second position repeat until all values are in their proper places
45
Selection sort example
46
Selection sort example 2

Index Value 0 27 1 63 2 1 3 72 4 64 5 58 6 14 7 9
1st pass 2nd pass 3rd pass
63
27
72
64
58
14
1
1
9
9
27
14
72
72
64
64
58
58
14
27
63
63
47
Selection sort code
The following code implements selection sort:

// places elements of the given array into sorted order public static void selectionSort(int[] a) { for (int i = 0; i < a.length - 1; i++) { // find index of smallest element int smallest = i; for (int j = i + 1; j < a.length; j++) { if (a[j] < a[smallest]) { smallest = j; } } swap(a, i, smallest); } } public static void swap(int[] list, int i, int j) { int temp = list[i]; list[i] = list[j]; list[j] = temp; }
// swap smallest to front
48
Selection sort runtime
Observation: runtime roughly quadruples when input size is doubled
makes sense because the code performs two nested loops over the array of size N its runtime should be O(N2)
49
Sorting practice problem
Consider the following array of int values:

[22, 11, 34, -5, 3, 40, 9, 16, 6]
Perform the selection sort algorithm on this data. Write the contents of the array after each pass of the outermost loop of selection sort until the array is sorted.
50
Implementing merge sort

reading: 13.4
51
Merge sort
merge sort: orders a list of values by recursively dividing the list in half until each sub-list has one element, then recombining

Invented by John von Neumann in 1945 relies on observation that if you have two sorted lists of values, they can be combined into a single larger sorted list quickly
merge sort pseudocode:

split the array into two halves. merge sort the left half (recursively). merge sort the right half (recursively). combine the two halves into a sorted whole.
52
Merge sort example

98 23 45 14 98 23 45 14 6 67 33 42 6 67 33 42
98 23
98 23
45 14
45 14
6
6
67
67
33 42
33 42
23 98
14 45
6
6
67
33 42
14 23 45 98 6
33 42 67
14 23 33 42 45 67 98
53
Merge sort example 2

13
0
21
18
20
7
13
0
21
18
3
9
4
20
7
13
0
6
1
21
2
18
3
9
4
4
5
8
6
20
7
13
0
6
1
21
2
18
3
9
4
4
5
8
6
20
7
6
0
13
1
18
2
21
3
4
4
9
5
8
6
20
7
6
0
13
18
21
3
4
4
20
7
4
0
13
18
20
21
7
54
Merging two sorted arrays
merge operation:
Given two sorted arrays, merge operation produces a sorted array with all the elements of the two arrays
A 6 13 18 21 B 4 8 9 20
13
18
20
21
Running time of merge : O(N), where N is the number of elements in the merged array.
When merging two sorted parts of the same array, we'll need a temporary array to store the merged whole.
55
Merge operation example
56
Split into halves code
The following code splits an array into its two halves:

// Returns the first half of the given array. public static int[] leftHalf(int[] array) { int size1 = array.length / 2; int[] left = new int[size1]; for (int i = 0; i < size1; i++) { left[i] = array[i]; } return left; } // Returns the second half of the given array. public static int[] rightHalf(int[] array) { int size1 = array.length / 2; int size2 = array.length - size1; int[] right = new int[size2]; for (int i = 0; i < size2; i++) { right[i] = array[i + size1]; } return right; }
57
Merge code
The following code implements the merge operation

// pre : result is empty; left/right are sorted // post: result contains merged sorted lists. public static void merge(int[] result, int[] left, int[] right) { int i1 = 0; // index into left array int i2 = 0; // index into right array for (int i = 0; i < result.length; i++) { if (i2 >= right.length || (i1 < left.length && left[i1] <= right[i2])) { result[i] = left[i1]; // take from left i1++; } else { result[i] = right[i2]; // take from right i2++; } } }
58
Merge sort code
The following code implements the overall merge sort:

// Places elements of given array into sorted order // using the merge sort algorithm. public static void mergeSort(int[] array) { if (array.length > 1) { // split array into two halves int[] left = leftHalf(array); int[] right = rightHalf(array); // recursively sort the two halves mergeSort(left); mergeSort(right);
// merge the sorted halves into a sorted whole merge(array, left, right);
} }
59
Sorting practice problem
Consider the following array of int values.

[22, 11, 34, -5, 3, 40, 9, 16, 6]
Perform the merge sort algorithm on this data. Write the contents of the array after each of the recursive calls of merge sort have finished.
60

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Building Java Programs

Chapter 13: Searching and Sorting

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Searching and sorting in the Java class libraries

algorithm analysis complexity classes and Big-Oh notation

Implementing searching and sorting algorithms

binary search selection sort merge sort

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Searching and sorting in the Java class libraries

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Imagine searching for a particular word in an ArrayList of words from a book:

The indexOf method above uses a sequential search.

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Binary search algorithm

Algorithm pseudocode (searching for a value K):

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Binary search example

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Java provides two binary search methods:

Arrays.binarySearch (for an array)

Collections.binarySearch (for a List)

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

<, >, compareTo,

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Sorting in the class libraries

Java provides two sorting methods:

Arrays.sort (for an array)

Collections.sort (for a List)

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

shuffling: Rearranging the elements of a list into a random order.

Output (for one example run): Top card = 10 of Spades

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Custom ordering with Comparators

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Sometimes, the default ordering is not what you want.

Output: [Charlie, DELTA, Foxtrot, alpha, bravo, echo, golf, hotel]

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Note that Comparator is a generic interface.

T will be replaced by the type of object you are actually comparing.

if o1 comes before o2, if o1 and o2 are equivalent, if o1 comes after o2.

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Sorting with Comparators

Output: [alpha, bravo, Charlie, DELTA, echo, Foxtrot, golf, hotel]

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

"Fast enough" is often relative to the task being performed.

Ways to measure the efficiency of a program:

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Rules for algorithm analysis

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Relative rates of growth

goal: distinguish between fast- and slow-growing functions

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Growth rate example

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Growth rate example

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Observation: runtime seems to roughly quadruple when input size is doubled

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education

Second, improved algorithm: