NEUROBIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

By: James Louies B. Un

BIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS of BEHAVIOR

NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
GENETIC MAKE UP SENSORY SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM
- it is a biological organ system of a multi-cellular organisms that monitor and maintain a constant internal environment as well as monitor and respond to an external environment.
- it is usually integrated with the endocrine system Three basic functions are performed by nervous systems: 1. Receive sensory input from internal and external environments

2. Integrate the input

3. Respond to stimuli

The Human Nervous System

Neuron also called a nerve cell
Is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system It is a part of the nervous tissue (neurons + glial cells) Made up of:
Cell Body/Soma which contains the nucleus Axon (cellulifigal), And Dendrites (cellulipital)

BASIC NEURON TYPES

Sensory neurons/afferent neurons typically have a long dendrite and short axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.
Motor neurons/efferent neurons have a long axon and short dendrites and transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to glands). Interneurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron. Pyramidal neurons (pyramidal cells) are a type of neuron found in areas of the brain including cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and in the amygdala.

Other parts of the Neuron

Telodendria (End-Brush) peripheral endings as well as a branched terminal of the axon
Synaptic knobs/synaptic terminals - terminates of the telodendria Myelin sheath specialized glial cells that wrap around the axon forming plasma membranes, sometimes called the schwann cells, serve as supportive, nutritive, and service facilities for neurons. Nodes of Ranvier the gap in between myelin sheaths serving as points along the neuron for generating signals.

WHAT IS A SYNAPSE?
- junction of neural information between a nerve cell and another cell through the transfer of neurotransmitters

WHAT IS A NEUROTRANSMITTER?
- Neurotransmitters are endogenous (derived from within) chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell.
- A neurotransmitter may be excitatory or inhibitory.

- an excitatory neurotransmitter brings about a transmission of neural impulses.

- an inhibitory neurotransmitter prevents the conduction of neural impulses.

Examples of Neurotransmitter Substances and their Functions:

1. Dopamine - pleasure neurotransmitter; too little in parkinson's disease. Too much for schizophrenia
2. Norepinephrine affects arousal level such as depression and hyperactivity. 3. Serotonin Lack of serotonin makes going to sleep difficult.

4. GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) Lowers arousal level(inhibitory): an amino acid; lacking in people having ADHD
5.Endorphin: Pain-relieving effect:neuropeptide

TRIVIA
Parkinson's disease has a deficiency of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Progressive death of brain cells increases this deficit, causing tremors, rigidity and unstable posture. L-dopa is a chemical related to dopamine that eases some of the symptoms (by acting as a substitute neurotransmitter) but cannot reverse the progression of the disease. The bacterium Clostridium tetani produces a toxin that prevents the release of GABA. GABA is important in control of skeletal muscles. Without this control chemical, regulation of muscle contraction is lost; it can be fatal when it effects the muscles used in breathing.

Clostridium botulinum produces a toxin found in improperly canned foods. This toxin causes the progressive relaxation of muscles, and can be fatal. A wide range of drugs also operate in the synapses: cocaine, LSD, caffeine, and insecticides.

Central Nervous System

Consisting of the: 1. Spinal cord: receives and processes sensory information from skin, joints, and muscles (dorsal horn), and passes motor commands on to the muscles (ventral horn). 2. Brainstem: the reticular formation runs along the whole brainstem, and contains the summary of all incoming information

1. Medulla Oblongata (myelencephalon): Digestion, breathing, heart-beat

2. Pons (metencephalon): passes information about movements on the the cerebrum and the cerebellum 3. Midbrain (mesencephalon): controls many sensory and motor functions, e.g. eye movements, and the coordination of visual and acoustic reflexes 3. Cerebellum: controls force and movements, and is involved in motor learning 4. Diencephalon: 1. Thalamus: processing most incoming (sensory) information, on its way to the cerebrum 2. Hypothalamus: regulates the autonomous system, controls the glands 5. Cerebrum

CEREBRUM
Uppermost and most expanded structure of the neural tube.
Outer layer is the gray matter called the cerebral cortex and beneath is the white matter composed mostly of myelinated fibers.

The two cerebral hemispheres are joined together by the largest band of comissural fibers/nerve fibers called the corpus callosum

Cortical Areas and their Function

Motor Area
Somatosensory Area/somesthetic area

Primary Visual Area/striate cortex

Primary Auditory Area Association Area

Asymmetries of the Brain/ Brain Lateralization

- Generally, the left hemisphere is always larger than the right hemisphere.
- the left hemisphere is considered to be the dominant ergo major hemisphere and the right is the non-dominant.
Only 18.8% of the left handed are dominant in the right hemisphere. 19.8% of the left handed are bilaterally functional. Ergo, 61.3% of the left handed are still dominant in the left hemisphere.

Question: Do ambidextrous people have brain asymmetries?

Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

- which would consist of - consisting of the sympathetic nervous the cranial nerves and system and spinal nerves parasympathetic nervous system.

Autonomic Nervous System

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems generally function with Antagonistic mechanism.
If the sympathetic stimulates then the parasympathetic inhibits, vice-versa.

Example: EYES IN DARK ROOM is to sympathetic, EYES IN BRIGHT LIGHT is to parasympathetic. HOW?
Question: How about in the state of homeostasis?
Is it possible that the 2 systems work/complement each other?

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
i. The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemical messages we call hormones. ii. These signals are passed through the blood to arrive at a target organ, which has cells possessing the appropriate receptor. iii. The roles of hormones is selecting target cells and delivering the hormonal message. iv. Hormones are grouped into three classes based on their structure: 1. steroids 2. peptides 3. amines

STEROIDS
Testes (Male)
- testoserone responsible for the production of male secondary sex characteristics.

Ovaries (female)
- estrogen responsible for the appearance of female secondary characteristics

- progesterone responsible for the thickening of uterine wall in preparation for pregnancy and childbirth

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Glands

The pituitary gland (often called the master gland) is located in a small bony cavity at the base of the brain. A stalk links the pituitary to the hypothalamus, which controls release of pituitary hormones. The pituitary gland has two lobes: the anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior pituitary is glandular.
The hypothalamus contains neurons that control releases from the pituitary glands. It is responsible for maintaining homeostasis i.e. the production of inhibitng and releasing hormone.

The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones into the blood. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are produced in the hypothalamus and transported by axons to the posterior pituitary where they are dumped into the blood. ADH controls water balance in the body and blood pressure. Oxytocin is a small peptide hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth.

Anterior Pituitary
Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide anterior pituitary hormone essential for growth. GH-releasing hormone stimulates release of GH. GHinhibiting hormone suppresses the release of GH. The hypothalamus maintains homeostatic levels of GH. Cells under the action of GH increase in size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia). GH also causes increase in bone length and thickness by deposition of cartilage at the ends of bones. During adolescence, sex hormones cause replacement of cartilage by bone, halting further bone growth even though GH is still present. Too little or two much GH can cause dwarfism or gigantism, respectively.
Hypothalamus receptors monitor blood levels of thyroid hormones. Low blood levels of Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) cause the release of TSH-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, which in turn causes the release of TSH from the anterior pituitary. TSH travels to the thyroid where it promotes production of thyroid hormones, which in turn regulate metabolic rates and body temperatures.

Anterior Pituitary Continuation

Gonadotropins and prolactin are also secreted by the anterior pituitary. Gonadotropins (which include follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH, and luteinizing hormone, LH) affect the gonads by stimulating gamete formation and production of sex hormones. Prolactin is secreted near the end of pregnancy and prepares the breasts for milk production. .

The Posterior Pituitary

The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones into the blood. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are produced in the hypothalamus and transported by axons to the posterior pituitary where they are dumped into the blood. ADH controls water balance in the body and blood pressure. Oxytocin is a small peptide hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth.

The Adrenal Glands

Each kidney has an adrenal gland located above it. The adrenal gland is divided into an inner medulla and an outer cortex. The medulla synthesizes amine hormones, the cortex secretes steroid hormones. The adrenal medulla consists of modified neurons that secrete two hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine. Stimulation of the cortex by the sympathetic nervous system causes release of hormones into the blood to initiate the "fight or flight" response. The adrenal cortex produces several steroid hormones in three classes: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones. Mineralocorticoids maintain electrolyte balance. Glucocorticoids produce a long-term, slow response to stress by raising blood glucose levels through the breakdown of fats and proteins; they also suppress the immune response and inhibit the inflammatory response.

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is located in the neck. Follicles in the thyroid secrete thyroglobulin, a storage form of thyroid hormone. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary causes conversion of thyroglobulin into thyroid hormones T4 and T3. Almost all body cells are targets of thyroid hormones.
Thyroid hormone increases the overall metabolic rate, regulates growth and development as well as the onset of sexual maturity. Calcitonin is also secreted by large cells in the thyroid; it plays a role in regulation of calcium.

The Pancreas
The pancreas contains exocrine cells that secrete digestive enzymes into the small intestine and clusters of endocrine cells (the pancreatic islets). The islets secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood glucose levels.
After a meal, blood glucose levels rise, prompting the release of insulin, which causes cells to take up glucose, and liver and skeletal muscle cells to form the carbohydrate glycogen. As glucose levels in the blood fall, further insulin production is inhibited. Glucagon causes the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which in turn is released into the blood to maintain glucose levels within a homeostatic range. Glucagon production is stimulated when blood glucose levels fall, and inhibited when they rise.

The Pancreas Continuation

Diabetes results from inadequate levels of insulin. Type I diabetes is characterized by inadequate levels of insulin secretion, often due to a genetic cause. Type II usually develops in adults from both genetic and environmental causes. Loss of response of targets to insulin rather than lack of insulin causes this type of diabetes. Diabetes causes impairment in the functioning of the eyes, circulatory system, nervous system, and failure of the kidneys. Diabetes is the second leading cause of blindness in the US. Treatments involve daily injections of insulin, monitoring of blood glucose levels and a controlled diet.

SENSORY PROCESS
STIMULUS
- threshold/minimal
RECEPTOR
- exteroreceptors found in the surface found in the superficial layer of the skin e.g. teloreceptors (distance: vision, audition, olfaction), contact receptor (needs direct contact: gustation and cutaneous) - proprioceptors founds in muscles

- subminimal

- interoceptors located in visceral organs.

Sensory Processes
VISUAL SENSE
AUDITORY SENSE

OLFACTORY SENSE
GUSTATORY SENSE CUTANEOUS SENSE/ SOMATOSENSATION/ TACTILE

VISUAL SENSE
- Stimulus is to LIGHT RAYS; Receptor is to EYES

- Light rays are in the form of visible spectrum such as the ROYGBIV.
- Within the Retina lies the rods and cones that act as specific receptors for the sense of sight. - At the center of the retina lies the fovea consisting 100% cons and it is the point of clearest vision.

- For us to see, therefore, there must be a stimulus; in this case, light rays that will excite the receptor consisting of the rods and cones of the retina, the optic nerve that will transmit the visual impulses, and the primary visual center in the cerebral cortex for the perception of the stimulus.

Auditory Sense
- Stimulus is to SOUND WAVES; receptor is to COCHLEA.
- Sound waves emanate from vibrating source. - Within the cochlea is the organ of corti that act as the specific receptor for the sense of hearing. - Once the organ of corti are stimulated by sound waves, transduction occurs. This means that the excitation of the receptor leads to the generation of the nerve impulse. The nerve impulse generated are then transmitted by the auditory nerve to the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex, where the primary auditory center is located for the perception of the sound.

OLFACTORY SENSE
- Stimulus is to CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES IN GASEOUS STATE; receptors is to OLFACTORY NERVES.
- the excitation of the olfactory cells leads to the generation of the neural impulses that are then transmitted by the olfactory nerve to the olfactory center located at the temporal lobe for the perception of odor.

GUSTATORY SENSE
- Stimulus is to CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES IN LIQUID FORM; receptor is to TONGUE.
- within the tongue are the taste buds (papillae) that serve as the specific receptor for the sense of taste. - as the papillae are stimulated, nerve impulses were generated and transmitted by the facial nerve and the glassopharyngeal nerve to the gustatory center in the cerebral cortex for the perception of flavor. - four primary taste qualities; sweet, sour, bitter, salty.

Cutaneous Sense/Somatosensation
Stimulus is to mechanical energy; receptor is to cospuscles and endings.
Meissner's corpuscle are receptors for light touch.

Peritrichila endings are receptors found in the hairy regions of the body.
Pacinian cospuscle are receptors for any pressure sensation and is located at the deeper layer of the skin. Krause's corpuscle are receptors for cold sensations Ruffinian endings are receptors for warm sensations located at the deeper layer of the skin. Parietal lobe is the area in the cerebral cortex for the perception of the touch sensation.