MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

The potential level across the membrane that prevents net diffusion of an ion in either direction through the membrane is called the NERNST POTENTIAL for that ion Expressed as Nernst Equation (ratio of the ion concentration on the two sides of the membrane) The > is the value of the ratio, the > is the tendency for the ions to diffuse in one direction => this means that the Nernst potential

is >

NEURONS basic building blocks of the NS Specialized function: transmission of nerve impulses ** there are 100 billion neurons in the human nervous system Membrane Potential (MP) of large nerve fibers is about -90MV =) this potential inside the fiber is 90MV MORE NEGATIVE than the potential in the ECF on the outside of the fiber

THIS MP IS AFFECTED BY THE FOLLOWING: Active transport of sodium and potassium through the membrane this causes large concentration gradient for Na+ and K+ across the resting nerve membrane 2. Leakage of Na+ and K+ thru the nerve membrane this called the potassium-sodium leak channel, with more emphasis on potassium leakage, with the channels far more permeable to potassium than to sodium this is important in determining the level of the normal resting MP
1.

1. cell body maintains the functional and anatomic integrity of the neuron 2. dendrite receives messages in the form of impulses for the neuron 3. axon transmits impulses to other neurons or to end organs 4. node of Ranvier increases the speed of impulse conduction 5. terminal buttons store synaptic granules secreted by the nerve

Nerve signals are transmitted by ACTION POTENTIAL (which are rapid changes in the membrane potential) Begins with: sudden change from the normal resting negative potential to a positive membrane potential ends with an almost equally rapid change back to the negative potential (See Fig. 5.6 textbook) EXPLOSIVE in onset and almost equally as rapid recovery

This is the electrical phenomenon in nerve cells. TYPES OF STIMULUS WHICH MAY EXCITE THE NERVE: 1. mechanical 2. chemical 3. electrical 4. thermal

Once the nerve has been stimulated,TWO types of physico-chemical disturbances are produced: 1. local, nonpropagated potentials called synaptic, generator or electrotonic potentials 2. propagated disturbances called NERVE IMPULSES which are the universal language of the nervous system

** The impulse is normally transmitted or conducted along the axon to its termination. CONDUCTION - is an active, self-propagating process that requires expenditure of energy by the nerve and the impulse moves along the nerve at a constant amplitude and velocity ** there are electrical potential changes in a nerve when it conducts impulses

To conduct a nerve signal, the action potential moves along the nerve fiber until it comes to the fiber s end 1. RESTING STAGE (-70MV) this is the resting membrane potential before the action potential occurs; the membrane is said to be polarized during this stage because of the large negative membrane potential that is present

2. DEPOLARIZED STAGE the membrane becomes SUDDENLY permeable to Na+ ions, allowing tremendous numbers of positively charged Na+ ions to flow to the interior of the axon; the potential rises RAPIDLY in the positive direction * in large nerve fibers the MP overshoots beyond the zero level and becomes somewhat positive *in smaller nerve fibers the MP merely approaches the zero level and does not overshoot to the positive state

3. REPOLARIZATION STAGE a few seconds after the membrane becomes highly permeable to sodium ions, the sodium channels open more than they normally do; then the rapid diffusion of potassium ions to the exterior re-establishes the normal negative resting MP

Stimulus Artifact current leakage from the stimulating electrodes to the recording electrodes marks the point at which the stimulus was applied Latent Period corresponds to the time it takes the impulse to travel along the axon from the site of stimulation to the recording electrodes

Firing Level marks the point at which the change in rate of depolarization occurs Spike Potential sharp rise and rapid fall After-Depolarization - slower fall at the end of the process

there is an increase in membrane permeability to Na+ , therefore, Na+ influx 2. the electrical and concentration gradients for Na+ are both directed inward, therefore, Na+ influx further lowers the membrane potential and Na+ permeability is further increased 3. this Na+ influx will overcome the repolarizing process ( K+ going out of the cell) and this will produce the spike potential
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4. then after sometime, the electrical gradient for Na+ is reversed (during the overshoot) because the membrane potential is reversed. Then the Na+ permeability is shortlived these factors will now limit Na+ influx and help bring about repolarization

5. Another factor producing repolarization of the nerve membrane is the increase in K+ permeability that follows that of Na+ --- starts more slowly and reaches a peak during the falling phase of the action potential at this point K+ diffuses out of the cell 6. The resulting net transfer of positive charge out of the cell completes REPOLARIZATION

Negatively Charged IONS (ANIONS) inside the axons- they can not go thru the membrane channels; EXAMPLES: anions of proteins molecules; organic phosphate compounds; sulfate compounds Calcium Ions being transported thru the calcium pump which is similar to Sodium pump (but calcium channels are slow channels, while the sodium channels are fast

Calcium channels are numerous in both cardiac muscle and smooth muscle, and the fast sodium channels are hardly present: THUS THE ACTION POTENTIALS OF THESE MUSCLES ARE ALMOST ENTIRELY CAUSED BY THE ACTION OF THE SLOW CALCIUM CHANNELS.

An action potential elicited at any one point on an excitable membrane usually excites adjacent portions of the membrane These will result in propagation of ACTION POTENTIAL The action potential spreads in an explosive manner, causing and producing local circuits of current flow still further along the entire membrane causing progressively more and more depolarization until the depolarization travels along the entire extent of the fiber.

The direction of propagation is not only in a single direction, but the action potential travels in both directions away from the stimulus

1. THRESHOLD INTENSITY minimum amount of intensity of stimulus that will produce an impulse, and therefore, an action potential 2. Subthreshold Intensity intensity of stimulus which will not produce an action potential or impulse

3. ALL or NONE LAW the law means that a stimulus at threshold intensity will produce an impulse; increasing it will not affect the produced impulse and decreasing it will produce no impulse at all ** a stimulus produces a particular response or NONE at all ** This applies to ALL NORMAL EXCITABLE TISSUES

Stimulus of extremely short duration will not excite the nerve no matter how intense this particular stimulus is Weak Stimulus no response occurs no matter how long the stimulus is applied

Accomodation process wherein the nerve adapts to the applied stimulus (if the stimulus fail to fire the nerve, therefore, no impulse or action potential is produced)

Absolute Refractory Period period wherein no stimulus, no matter how strong, will excite the nerve corresponds to the period from the time the firing level is reached until repolarization is about one third complete

Relative Refractory Period follows absolute refractory period up to the start of afterdepolarization during this period, stronger than normal stimuli can cause excitation Maximal Stimulus stimulus that produces excitation of all the axons in a peripheral nerve

Saltatory Conduction jumping of depolarization from one node of Ranvier to the next; this increases the speed of conduction of impulse **For unmyelinated neurons speed of conduction increases with the square root of the axon diameter **For myelinated neurons speed of conduction increases directly with the diameter of the axon

Study on: Rhythmicity of certain excitable tissues repetitive discharge Excitation the process of eliciting the Action Potential Inhibition of Excitability stabilizers and local anaesthetics