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Hormonal Regulation and Homeostasis

Overview: The Body s Long-Distance Regulators


` Animal hormones are chemical signals that are secreted

into the circulatory system and communicate regulatory messages within the body
` Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only target

cells are equipped to respond

The endocrine system and the nervous system act individually and together in regulating an animal s physiology
y Animals have two systems of internal communication

and regulation: the nervous system and the endocrine system

` The nervous system conveys high-speed electrical

signals along specialized cells called neurons

` The endocrine system secretes hormones that

coordinate slower but longer-acting responses

Overlap Between Endocrine and Nervous Regulation


y The endocrine and nervous systems function together in

maintaining homeostasis, development, and reproduction


y Specialized nerve cells known as neurosecretory cells

release neurohormones into the blood


y Both endocrine hormones and neurohormones function

as long-distance regulators of many physiological processes

Control Pathways and Feedback Loops


y There are three types of hormonal control pathways:

simple endocrine, simple neurohormone, and simple neuroendocrine y A common feature is a feedback loop connecting the response to the initial stimulus y Negative feedback regulates many hormonal pathways involved in homeostasis

Pathway Stimulus Receptor protein

Example Low blood glucose

Endocrine cell Blood vessel

Pancreas secretes glucagon ( )

Target effectors

Liver

Response

Glycogen breakdown, glucose release into blood

Simple endocrine pathway

Pathway Stimulus

Example Suckling

Sensory neuron Hypothalamus/ posterior pituitary Neurosecretory cell Posterior pituitary secretes oxytocin Blood ( ) vessel

Target effectors

Smooth muscle in breast

Response

Milk release

Simple neurohormone pathway

Pathway
Stimulus

Example

Hypothalamic neurohormone released in Sensory response to neuron neural and hormonal signals Hypothalamus Neurosecretory cell Hypothalamus secretes prolactinBlood releasing vessel hormone ( )

Endocrine cell Blood vessel

Anterior pituitary secretes prolactin ( )

Target effectors

Mammary glands

Response

Milk production

Simple neuroendocrine pathway

Hormones and other chemical signals bind to target cell receptors, initiating pathways that culminate in specific cell responses.
y Hormones convey information via the bloodstream to

target cells throughout the body


y Three major classes of molecules function as hormones

in vertebrates:
y Proteins and peptides y Amines derived from amino acids y Steroids

y Signaling by any of these hormones involves three key

events:
y Reception y Signal transduction y Response

SECRETORY CELL

SECRETORY CELL

Hormone molecule VIA BLOOD Signal receptor VIA BLOOD

Hormone molecule

TARGET CELL Signal transduction pathway OR Cytoplasmic response

TARGET CELL

Signal receptor DNA Signal transduction and response

mRNA NUCLEUS

DNA Nuclear response NUCLEUS Receptor in plasma membrane Synthesis of specific proteins Receptor in cell nucleus

y Binding of a hormone to its receptor initiates a signal

transduction pathway leading to responses in the cytoplasm or a change in gene expression


y The same hormone may have different effects on target

cells that have


y Different receptors for the hormone y Different signal transduction pathways y Different proteins for carrying out the response

` The hormone epinephrine has multiple effects in

mediating the body s response to short-term stress

Different receptors Epinephrine E receptor

different cell responses Epinephrine F receptor Epinephrine F receptor Glycogen deposits Vessel dilates

Vessel constricts

Glycogen breaks down and glucose is released from cell Liver cell

Intestinal blood vessel

Skeletal muscle blood vessel Different intracellular proteins

different cell responses

Intracellular Receptors for Lipid-Soluble Hormones

y Steroids, thyroid hormones, and the hormonal form of

vitamin D enter target cells and bind to protein receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus
y Protein-receptor complexes then act as transcription

factors in the nucleus, regulating transcription of specific genes

Paracrine Signaling by Local Regulators


y In paracrine signaling, nonhormonal chemical signals

called local regulators elicit responses in nearby target cells


y Types of local regulators: y Neurotransmitters y Cytokines and growth factors y Nitric oxide y Prostaglandins

` Prostaglandins help regulate aggregation of platelets, an

early step in formation of blood clots

Hypothalamus Pineal gland Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands

Adrenal glands

Pancreas Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many functions of the vertebrate endocrine system

y The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland control much

of the endocrine system

Relation Between the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland


The hypothalamus, a region of the lower brain, contains neurosecretory cells The posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus Hormonal secretions from neurosecretory cells are stored in or regulate the pituitary gland

Hypothalamus

Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus

Axon

Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary

HORMONE

ADH

Oxytocin

TARGET

Kidney tubules

Mammary glands, uterine muscles

y Other hypothalamic cells produce tropic hormones,

hormones that regulate endocrine organs


y Tropic hormones are secreted into the blood and

transported to the anterior pituitary


y The tropic hormones of the hypothalamus control

release of hormones from the anterior pituitary

Tropic Effects Only FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone LH, luteinizing hormone TSH, thyroid-stimulating hormone ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone Nontropic Effects Only Prolactin MSH, melanocyte-stimulating hormone Endorphin Nontropic and Tropic Effects Growth hormone

Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus

Portal vessels

Hypothalamic releasing hormones (red dots)

Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary Pituitary hormones (blue dots)

HORMONE

FSH and LH

TSH

ACTH

Prolactin

MSH

Endorphin

Growth hormone

TARGET

Testes or ovaries

Thyroid

Adrenal cortex

Mammary glands

Melanocytes

Pain receptors in the brain

Liver

Bones

Posterior Pituitary Hormones


y The two hormones released from the posterior pituitary

act directly on nonendocrine tissues


y Oxytocin induces uterine contractions and milk ejection y Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) enhances water

reabsorption in the kidneys

Anterior Pituitary Hormones


y The anterior pituitary produces both tropic and

nontropic hormones

Tropic Hormones
y The four strictly tropic hormones are y Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) y Luteinizing hormone (LH) y Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) y Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Each tropic hormone acts on its target endocrine tissue

to stimulate release of hormone(s) with direct metabolic or developmental effects

Nontropic Hormones
y Nontropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary: y Prolactin
y

Prolactin stimulates lactation in mammals but has diverse effects in different vertebrates

y Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)


y

MSH influences skin pigmentation in some vertebrates and fat metabolism in mammals

y F-endorphin
y

Endorphins inhibit pain

Growth Hormone
y Growth hormone (GH) has tropic and nontropic actions y It promotes growth directly and has diverse metabolic

effects
y It stimulates production of growth factors

Nonpituitary hormones help regulate metabolism, homeostasis, development, and behavior

y Many nonpituitary hormones regulate various functions

in the body

Thyroid Hormones
y The thyroid gland consists of

two lobes on the ventral surface of the trachea


y It produces two iodine-

containing hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)

y The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary control

secretion of thyroid hormones through two negative feedback loops

Hypothalamus

TRH

Anterior pituitary

TSH

Thyroid

T3

T4

` Thyroid hormones stimulate metabolism and influence

development and maturation

` Hyperthyroidism, excessive secretion of thyroid

hormones, can cause Graves disease in humans

y The thyroid gland also produces calcitonin, which

functions in calcium homeostasis

Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin: Control of Blood Calcium


y Two antagonistic

hormones, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin, play the major role in calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis in mammals

Thyroid gland releases calcitonin.

Calcitonin

Stimulates Ca2+ deposition in bones

Reduces Ca2+ uptake in kidneys

STIMULUS: Rising blood Ca2+ level

Blood Ca2+ level declines to set point

Homoeostasis: Blood Ca2+ level (about 10 mg/100 mL) Blood Ca2+ level rises to set point STIMULUS: Falling blood Ca2+ level Parathyroid Stimulates 2+ release gland Ca from bones

PTH

Increases Ca2+ uptake in intestines

Active vitamin D

Stimulates Ca2+ uptake in kidneys

y Calcitonin stimulates Ca2+ deposition in bones and

secretion by kidneys, lowering blood Ca2+ levels

y PTH, secreted by the parathyroid glands, has the

opposite effects on the bones and kidneys, and therefore raises Ca2+ levels

y PTH also has an indirect effect, stimulating the kidneys

to activate vitamin D, which promotes intestinal uptake of Ca2+ from food

Insulin and Glucagon: Control of Blood Glucose


y The pancreas secretes insulin

and glucagon, antagonistic hormones that help maintain glucose homeostasis


y Glucagon is produced by

alpha cells
y Insulin is produced by beta

cells

Insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen.
STIMULUS: Rising blood glucose level (for instance, after eating a carbohydraterich meal)

Body cells take up more glucose.

Blood glucose level declines to set point; stimulus for insulin release diminishes.

Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (about 90 mg/100 mL)

Blood glucose level rises to set point; stimulus for glucagon release diminishes.

STIMULUS: Dropping blood glucose level (for instance, after skipping a meal)

Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood.

Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon into the blood.

Glucagon

Target Tissues for Insulin and Glucagon


y Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by y Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose y Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver y Promoting fat storage

y Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by y Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver y Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose

Diabetes Mellitus
y Diabetes mellitus is perhaps the best-known endocrine disorder y It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues y It is marked by elevated blood glucose levels

` Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) is an

autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells

` Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent)

involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors

Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress


y The adrenal glands are

adjacent to the kidneys


y Each adrenal gland actually

consists of two glands: the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

.from the Adrenal Medulla


y The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline)

and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)


y They are secreted in response to stress-activated

impulses from the nervous system


y They mediate various fight-or-flight responses

Cortisol triggers the metabolism of proteins and fats to produce glucose. Cortisol also suppresses the immune system, which is probably one reason that chronic stress is unhealthy. Cortisol secretion is suppressed by negative feedback to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.

The adrenal cortex also secretes aldosterone, which stimulates the kidneys to absorb sodium and thus water. This increases the blood pressure. When homeostasis is reached, negative feedback shuts off the secretion of aldosterone.

Low aldosterone causes low blood pressure, an imbalance of electrolytes (sodium and potassium ions) in the blood, and unhealthy weight loss, which are symptoms of Addison s disease.

Stress Hormones from the Adrenal Cortex


y Hormones from the adrenal cortex also function in

response to stress
y They fall into three classes of steroid hormones:
y Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, influence glucose

metabolism and the immune system


y Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, affect salt and

water balance
y Sex hormones are produced in small amounts

Stress

Nerve Spinal cord signals (cross section) Nerve cell

Releasing hormone

Hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary Blood vessel


ACTH

Nerve cell

ACTH Adrenal gland Kidney Short-term stress response


Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: 1. Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose 2. Increased blood pressure 3. Increased breathing rate 4. Increased metabolic rate 5. Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive and kidney activity

Long-term stress response


Effects of mineralocorticoids: Effects of glucocorticoids:

1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats broken down and ions and water by converted to glucose, kidneys leading to increased 2. Increased blood blood glucose volume and blood pressure 2. Immune system may be suppressed

Gonadal Sex Hormones


y The gonads, testes and

ovaries, produce most of the sex hormones: androgens(testosterone), estrogens, and progestins

` The testes primarily synthesize androgens, mainly

testosterone, which stimulate development and maintenance of the male reproductive system
` Testosterone causes increase in muscle and bone mass

and is often taken as a supplement to cause muscle growth, which carries health risks

y Estrogens, most importantly estradiol, are responsible

for maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics
y In mammals, progestins, which include progesterone,

are primarily involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus

Melatonin and Biorhythms


y The pineal gland, located in

the brain, secretes melatonin

Light/dark cycles control release of melatonin y Primary functions of melatonin appear to relate to

biological rhythms associated with reproduction

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