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into the circulatory system and communicate regulatory messages within the body
` Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only target
The endocrine system and the nervous system act individually and together in regulating an animal s physiology
y Animals have two systems of internal communication
simple endocrine, simple neurohormone, and simple neuroendocrine y A common feature is a feedback loop connecting the response to the initial stimulus y Negative feedback regulates many hormonal pathways involved in homeostasis
Target effectors
Liver
Response
Pathway Stimulus
Example Suckling
Sensory neuron Hypothalamus/ posterior pituitary Neurosecretory cell Posterior pituitary secretes oxytocin Blood ( ) vessel
Target effectors
Response
Milk release
Pathway
Stimulus
Example
Hypothalamic neurohormone released in Sensory response to neuron neural and hormonal signals Hypothalamus Neurosecretory cell Hypothalamus secretes prolactinBlood releasing vessel hormone ( )
Target effectors
Mammary glands
Response
Milk production
Hormones and other chemical signals bind to target cell receptors, initiating pathways that culminate in specific cell responses.
y Hormones convey information via the bloodstream to
in vertebrates:
y Proteins and peptides y Amines derived from amino acids y Steroids
events:
y Reception y Signal transduction y Response
SECRETORY CELL
SECRETORY CELL
Hormone molecule
TARGET CELL
mRNA NUCLEUS
DNA Nuclear response NUCLEUS Receptor in plasma membrane Synthesis of specific proteins Receptor in cell nucleus
different cell responses Epinephrine F receptor Epinephrine F receptor Glycogen deposits Vessel dilates
Vessel constricts
Glycogen breaks down and glucose is released from cell Liver cell
vitamin D enter target cells and bind to protein receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus
y Protein-receptor complexes then act as transcription
Adrenal glands
Testis (male)
The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many functions of the vertebrate endocrine system
Hypothalamus
Axon
HORMONE
ADH
Oxytocin
TARGET
Kidney tubules
Tropic Effects Only FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone LH, luteinizing hormone TSH, thyroid-stimulating hormone ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone Nontropic Effects Only Prolactin MSH, melanocyte-stimulating hormone Endorphin Nontropic and Tropic Effects Growth hormone
Portal vessels
HORMONE
FSH and LH
TSH
ACTH
Prolactin
MSH
Endorphin
Growth hormone
TARGET
Testes or ovaries
Thyroid
Adrenal cortex
Mammary glands
Melanocytes
Liver
Bones
nontropic hormones
Tropic Hormones
y The four strictly tropic hormones are y Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) y Luteinizing hormone (LH) y Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) y Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Each tropic hormone acts on its target endocrine tissue
Nontropic Hormones
y Nontropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary: y Prolactin
y
Prolactin stimulates lactation in mammals but has diverse effects in different vertebrates
MSH influences skin pigmentation in some vertebrates and fat metabolism in mammals
y F-endorphin
y
Growth Hormone
y Growth hormone (GH) has tropic and nontropic actions y It promotes growth directly and has diverse metabolic
effects
y It stimulates production of growth factors
in the body
Thyroid Hormones
y The thyroid gland consists of
Hypothalamus
TRH
Anterior pituitary
TSH
Thyroid
T3
T4
hormones, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin, play the major role in calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis in mammals
Calcitonin
Homoeostasis: Blood Ca2+ level (about 10 mg/100 mL) Blood Ca2+ level rises to set point STIMULUS: Falling blood Ca2+ level Parathyroid Stimulates 2+ release gland Ca from bones
PTH
Active vitamin D
opposite effects on the bones and kidneys, and therefore raises Ca2+ levels
alpha cells
y Insulin is produced by beta
cells
Insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen.
STIMULUS: Rising blood glucose level (for instance, after eating a carbohydraterich meal)
Blood glucose level declines to set point; stimulus for insulin release diminishes.
Blood glucose level rises to set point; stimulus for glucagon release diminishes.
STIMULUS: Dropping blood glucose level (for instance, after skipping a meal)
Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood.
Glucagon
y Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by y Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver y Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose
Diabetes Mellitus
y Diabetes mellitus is perhaps the best-known endocrine disorder y It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues y It is marked by elevated blood glucose levels
autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells
involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors
Cortisol triggers the metabolism of proteins and fats to produce glucose. Cortisol also suppresses the immune system, which is probably one reason that chronic stress is unhealthy. Cortisol secretion is suppressed by negative feedback to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.
The adrenal cortex also secretes aldosterone, which stimulates the kidneys to absorb sodium and thus water. This increases the blood pressure. When homeostasis is reached, negative feedback shuts off the secretion of aldosterone.
Low aldosterone causes low blood pressure, an imbalance of electrolytes (sodium and potassium ions) in the blood, and unhealthy weight loss, which are symptoms of Addison s disease.
response to stress
y They fall into three classes of steroid hormones:
y Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, influence glucose
water balance
y Sex hormones are produced in small amounts
Stress
Releasing hormone
Hypothalamus
Nerve cell
1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats broken down and ions and water by converted to glucose, kidneys leading to increased 2. Increased blood blood glucose volume and blood pressure 2. Immune system may be suppressed
ovaries, produce most of the sex hormones: androgens(testosterone), estrogens, and progestins
testosterone, which stimulate development and maintenance of the male reproductive system
` Testosterone causes increase in muscle and bone mass
and is often taken as a supplement to cause muscle growth, which carries health risks
for maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics
y In mammals, progestins, which include progesterone,
Light/dark cycles control release of melatonin y Primary functions of melatonin appear to relate to