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CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

The process of separation of mixed liberated particles from each other if there are sufficient differences in their wet-ability is called flotation.

PRINCIPLE Froth Flotation commences by Comminution (that is, crushing and grinding), which is used to increase the surface area of the ore for subsequent processing and break the rocks into the desired mineral and gangue in a process known as liberation, which then has to be separated from the desired mineral.

The ore is ground into a fine powder and mixed with water to form a slurry. The desired mineral is rendered hydrophobic by the addition of a surfactant or collector chemical. ` The particular chemical depends on which mineral is being refined. ` Example: pine oil is used to extract copper This slurry (more properly called the pulp) of ` hydrophobic mineral-bearing ore ` hydrophilic gangue is then introduced to a water bath which is aerated, creating bubbles. The hydrophobic grains of mineral-bearing ore escape the water by attaching to the air bubbles, which rise to the surface, forming a foam or a scum (more properly called a froth). The froth is removed and the concentrated mineral is further refined.

The floatation process operates by preparing a water suspension of a mixture of relatively fine sized particles (smaller than 150 micro meters) and by contacting the suspension with a swarm of air bubbles in a suitably designed process vessel. Particles that are not wetted by water (hydrophobic) tend to be attached to air bubbles levitate (float) to the top of the process vessel and collect in the forth layer.

BASE OF SEPARATION ` Thus difference in the surface chemical properties of the solids are the basis of separation by flotation.
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Surfaces that do not have strong surface chemical bonds, that were broken, tend to be non-polar and are not readily wetted. e.g. Graphite and Talc. These solids are naturally floatable.

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Physical & Chemical nature of the material Pre-treatment (grinding etc.) Water chemistry Reagents added Type of flotation cell used

MINERAL APPLICATIONS ` The floatation process is most widely used in the mineral process industry to concentrate mineral values in the ores. Most of the worlds
Copper Lead
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Zinc Molybdenum

Nickel

are produced from ores that are concentrated first by flotation.

In addition, floatation is commonly used ` for the recovery of fine coal ` for the concentration of wide range of mineral commodities including fluorspar, mica, spodumene, bastnaesite, calcite, granite and talc.

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WASTEWATER TREATMENT to remove particulate, organic and biological contaminants. Extraction of metallic values from hydrometallurgical streams by particulate floatation. De-inking of waste paper. Recovery of bitumen from tar sand. Recovery of solids from white water in paper making. Recovery of glass water from industrial wastes. Removal of impurities from peas. Separation of proteins from milk. Clarification of fruit juices. Extraction of soluble particles

The following steps are followed: ` Grinding to liberate the mineral particles ` Reagent conditioning to achieve hydrophobic surface charges on the desired particles. ` Collection and upward transport by bubbles in an intimate contact with air or nitrogen ` Formation of a stable froth on the surface of the flotation cell ` Separation of the mineral laden froth from the bath (flotation cell)

Unit operation of flotation is based on two major steps: CONDITIONING ` is basically a pre treatment step. the slurry or the pulp, consisting of particles to be separated, is fed to the conditioning unit, to which the necessary flotation reagents are added. ` The main purpose of conditioning step is to create physical-chemical conditioning or the process of chemical changes necessary for forth flotation. ` The conditioner may be soluble, insoluble, and partially soluble. SEPARATION ` is then intended to generate and introduce air bubbles into the process vessel for contacting them with particulate species. ` Particles attached to the air bubbles are in most applications removed from the process vessel as froth.

accordingly the unit operation of flotation is referred to as FROTH FLOTATION. In the mineral industry: ` The froth overflow stream is called CONCENTRATE ` The slurry underflow is called TAILINGS. depending on the application, these two steps may be carried out in two distinctly different process units or in one combined unit.

Ores must be ground to a point of complete or nearly complete liberation. Even tough it might possibly be accomplished by coarse crushing., grinding. Grinding is done in closed circuit with classifier. In many instances, superior flotation results are obtained by conditioning the ore with the reagents before the flotation step. Oily type collectors are sometimes added to the grinding circuit to ensure dispersion. Flotation machines are built in multiple units. Common practice is to feed the pulp to several cells known as roughers. Which produce a barren tailing. The concentrate is treated in cleaner cells and re-cleaner cells for final concentration.

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Ore Flotation Macro Flotation Micro Flotation Adsorbing Colloid Flotation Molecular Flotation Ion Flotation Precipitate Flotation

MACROSCOPIC FLOTATION ` type of flotation which deals with the removal of Macroscopic Particles. MICROSCOPIC FLOTATION ` type of flotation which deals with the removal of Microscopic Particles particularly colloid or microorganisms. ` It is also called Colloid Flotation.

ADSORBING COLLOID FLOTATION ` type of flotation which deals with the removal of dissolved material in piggyback fashions by adsorptions on colloidal particles is called adsorbing colloid flotation MOLECULAR FLOTATION ` type of flotation which deals with the removal of surface inactive molecules through the use of collector (surfactant) which yields an insoluble product. ION FLOTATION ` type of flotation which deals with the removal of surface inactive ions through the use of collector which yields an insoluble product; especially a removal of scum. PRECIPITATE FLOTATION ` type of flotation in which the precipitate is removed by a collector which is not precipitating agent.

Three types of chemical reagents used during the froth flotation process ` Collectors ` Frothers ` Modifiers

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These are surface active agents that are added to the flotation pulp where they adsorbs selectively on the surface of the particles and render them hydrophobic. Collectors increase the natural hydrophobicity of the surface. increase the separability of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic particles.

Caution: ` Collectors are added in a certain amount. Addition of excess quantities of a collector is not desirable because it results in reducing the selectivity and increasing the cost. TYPES OF COLLECTORS: ` Ionizing Collector ` Non Ionizing Collector

NON IONIZING COLLECTOR ` The non ionizing collectors are practically insoluble in water and cause the particles to become hydrophobic by covering them with a thin film. IONIZING COLLECTOR ` The ionizing collector adsorb either physically or chemically on the particles surface and can further be classified Anionic & Cationic Collectors ` depending upon the nature of the non polar hydrocarbon group. common examples of the ionizing collectors include: Fatty Acids Amines Long Chain Sulphates Xanthates Sulphonates Dithiophosphates

These are also surface active agents & are added to the flotation pulp primarily ` to stabilize air bubbles for effective particle bubble attachment and ` removal of the froth.
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The Frother action is similar to the ionizing collectors except that thay concentrate primarily at air-liquid interface.

Commonly used Frothers are ` Pine Oil ` Short Chain Alcohol ` Polypropylene Glycol ` Cresylic Acid

Modifiers adsorb on the surface of particles or react chemically at the surface and prevent the adsorption of the collector or promoter.

Flotation modifiers include several classes of chemicals ` Activator ` pH regulators ` Depressants ` Flocculants

ACTIVATORS
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Enhance the flotation by collectors that will not float in their absence e.g. calcium activated flotation of Quartz using Oleate

PH REGULATORS ` Regulators such as lime, caustic soda, soda ash & sulfuric acid are used to control or adjust pH , a very critical factor in many flotation separations.

DEPRESSANTS
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prevent the adsorption of collectors and help in selectivity or stop unwanted mineral from floating.

Typical are ` Sodium to depress Pyrite, ` Zinc Sulphate to depress ZnS ` Lime to depress Pyrite ` Lignin Sulfonates to depress Graphite

Various type of flotation machine designs, can be classified into different categories. on the methods used for the generation and introduction of air bubbles into the equipment . Each of the techniques has its own advantage and limitations. These must be considered carefully in selecting the equipment for a specific application. Following are some different flotation units used as flotation equipment.

Electrolytic or Electro-Flotation is based on the generation of hydrogen and oxygen bubbles in a dilute aqueous solution by passing direct current between two electrodes. ` a low voltage potential of 5 to 10 volts is supplied to the electrodes. ` Power consumption is in the range of 0.5 to 0.7 kW/m of Flotation tank surface, depending in the ` conductivity of the liquid ` distance between the electrodes. DRAW-BACKS ` The main drawback of the Electro-Flotation units is associated with the electrodes in terms of ` their fouling requiring mechanical energy ` their consumption needing replacement at frequent intervals.
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Electro-Flotation is not expected to suitable for potable water treatment because of the possibly heavy metals contamination that can arise due to dissolution of the electrodes.

The two main types of Dissolved Air Flotation processes are: ` Vacuum Flotation ` Pressure Flotation [most widely used]

VACUUM FLOTATION
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In Vacuum Flotation the process stream is saturated with air at atmospheric pressure and introduced to the flotation tank on which a vacuum is applied giving rise to the generation of the air bubbles.

LIMITATIONS ` The process can be run only as a batch process and requires sophisticated equipment to produce and maintain the vacuum. By and large the amount of air released during Flotation is limited by the vacuum achievable.

PRESSURE FLOTATION
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In contrast to vacuum flotation dissolved air flotation unit can be operated on continued basis by the application of pressure. This consist of pressurizing and aerating process stream and introducing it into the flotation vessel that is maintained at low atmospheric pressure. The sudden reduction of pressure results in the formation of fine air bubbles and the collection of fine particulates to be floated and removed as sludge.

SPLIT FLOTATION SYSTEM

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Pressurization could be carried out on the entire feed stream or a fraction of the feed stream while the remainder is introduced directly without aeration into the flotation tank. The split flotation system offers a cost saving over the full flow units in both cases however, the solid particles in the feed stream are flocculated before introducing in the flotation tank The high shear during pressurization, aeration and pressure release can destroy flocs.

The dissolved air flotation process is more commonly used for ` Sewage and Potable Water Treatment. ` Treatment of Slaughter House ` Poultry Processing ` Sea Food Processing ` Waste Food Processing

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Dispersed air flotation involves the generation of air bubbles either pneumatically or by mechanical means in both cases relatively large air bubbles are generated to control the size and stability of air bubbles frothers are added to the flotation devices. Mechanical flotation machines are most commonly used in mineral industry Pneumatic Column Type Units are gaining popularity recently.

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MECHANICAL CELLS ` In a typical installation a number of flotation cells are connected in series such that ` Overflow each cell OUTPUT FROTH goes into a launder ` Underflow from one cell goes to the next one. ` The cell design may be such that the flow of slurry from one cell to another can neither be restricted by weirs or unrestricted. ` The mechanical cells that are most widely used today in Sulfide, Coal and Non-Metallic flotation operation are made by Fagergren, Denver & Outokumpy.

These machines provide mechanical agitation and aeration by means of a rotation impeller on an upright shaft. in addition the agitator and Denver cells also utilize air from a blower to help aerate the pulp.

ADVANTAGES [LARGE SCALE FLOTATION] Large scale flotation machine offer advantages of ` lower installed cost ` lower operating cost ` lower floor space requirement ` The use of large flotation cells does enable a few number of parallel rows and thereby permits a reduction in pumps piping and other auxiliaries. However it should be noted that large flotation cells do not permit ` reduction in the number of cells in a series.

Flotation columns belong to the class of pneumatic devices in which ` air bubble generation is accomplished by a gas sparging system ` no mechanical agitation is employed. INPUTS TO THE COLUMN INCLUDE: ` pre conditioned slurry feed [two third of height from the bottom] ` air [from the bottom region] ` wash water spray [at the top of the column] OUTPUTS: ` Overflow from the top of the tank, froth consisting of hydrophobic particles ` Underflow from the bottom of the tank, carrying the non floatable hydrophilic particles. USES:
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Iron Ore Copper, Lead Zinc & Coal Flotation processes.

The main advantages of the flotation column technology include : ` Improved Recovery ` Optimized Grade ` Increased Throughput ` Low Capital Cost ` Low Operating Cost ` Low plant floor space requirements ` Easy adaptability to automatic control ` Simplicity in construction ` Flexibility in operation. ` Improved Separation performance particularly for fine materials.

Column flotation cells better suited to flotation of fines