Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Standard of living
The extent to which a person is able to provide the things that are necessary for sustaining and enjoying life. Standard of living of a representative family differs greatly in different parts of the world. What is considered a necessity in one part of the world could be considered a luxury in the other. Basic necessities of a minimum decent standard of living: Food, clothing, housing and hygiene. Also, security and education also considered constituents. Greater the amount of goods and services produced in any community, the higher its the average standard of living.
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Standard of living
There are two ways of increasing the amount of goods and services produced: - Increase the employment and investment in creating jobs. So that more people are producing goods required for the society. - Increase productivity. Same amount of labor produces more goods. We want: More and cheaper food by increase in agricultural productivity More and cheaper clothing and housing by increased industrial productivity More hygiene, security and education by increasing overall productivity.
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Productivity
Ratio between output and input. Arithmetic ratio between the amount produced and the amount of any resources used in the production. The resources may be: land, material, plant, machines, tools, labor. It could be combination of all! Over a period of time, one can say that productivity has increased. How? Combination of improved technology, better planning, greater skills etc.
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Productivity
Note that, increased production does not mean increased productivity. Higher productivity means that more is produced with the same expenditure of resources; that is, at the same cost in terms of land, material, machine, time or labor. Alternatively, same amount is produced at less cost in terms of land, labor, material etc; thereby releasing some of these resources for the production of other things.
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Productivity in industry
Many factors affecting productivity of each organization; also, they are dependent. Depending on the individual environments, decisions are to be made. Industries where labor and capital costs are low compared to the material costs, better use of material and plant gives the greatest scope of cost reduction. In countries where capital and skilled labor are in shortage compared to unskilled labor, one should look to increase the output per machine or per skilled worker. Increasing the number of unskilled workers may be beneficial if by doing so an expensive machine or skilled craftsmen are enabled to increase production.
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Governments responsibility
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Government can create conditions favorable to raise productivity. It can: Have a balanced programs of economic development Take steps necessary to maintain employment Make opportunities for employment. Last step is specifically important for a developing country like India. Government should make provisions for workers who are going to loose jobs because of technology improvement training and education programs. Example: Indias First Five-Year Plan (1952).
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Managements responsibility
The main responsibility for raising productivity in an individual organization lies with the management. It can implement productivity programs. It can create a positive environment and obtain co-operation of the employees. Trade unions should encourage its members to provide such co-operation when the productivity program is beneficial to workers, as well as the organization on the whole. We will look at managements role in increasing productivity of individual resource:
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Productivity of material
At the design stage: Ensure least consumption of material, Purchase equipments and plants such that consumption of material is economical. At the operation stage: Use of correct process Right use of the process Operator training Proper handling and storage of products at all stages Proper packaging to reduce damage in transit
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Nature of management
Management is the organization and control of human activity directed towards specific ends. Management techniques are systematic procedures of investigation, planning and control which can be applied to management problems. Systematic approach to the solution of the problems proceeds step by step from known to the unknown, always on the basis of ascertained facts. Since management deals with human beings, it can never be completely scientific, and must partly be regarded as an art.
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Effectiveness
Productivity
Quality
Partial Productivity
Labour Productivity Material Productivity Machine Productivity
Multi-factors Productivity
Multi-factors productivity
Output/(Labor + machine)
Work study
Technique used in the examination of human work in all contexts, and which lead systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed, in order to effect improvement. Two branches method study and work measurement. Widely known as time and motion study. Rapid developments after World War II. Huge capital investment in process R&D may increase productivity. However, it is expensive and time consuming. Work study focuses on human workers and can increase productivity at a lower cost.
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Work study
Since line managers are typically busy with the day-to-day activities, they can only look at work study during their free time. They should not be entrusted with the work study responsibilities. Workers also ruled out because they usually lack the knowledge of the big picture. Therefore, responsibility should be given to someone who can work full-time on work study, without direct management duties. Someone in the staff and not a line position.
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Select the job or process to be studied. Record from the direct observations everything that happens. Examine the recorded facts critically and challenge everything that is done. Develop most economic method taking in to considerations all circumstances. Measure the quantity of work involved in the method selected and calculate a standard time for doing it. Define the new method and time to standardize. Institutionalize the new method and time as practice. Maintain the new standards by control procedures.
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Method study
Objectives
Improvement of processes and procedures. Improvements of factory, shop and workplace layout and of design of plant and equipment. Economy of human efforts and the reduction of unnecessary fatigue. Improvement in the use of materials, machines and manpower. The development of a better physical working environment.
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Important considerations
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Product and operation Person who proposed investigation Reason for proposal Particulars of the job Equipment Layout Product Savings and/or increase in productivity expected.
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Why charts?
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It gives a complete picture of what is being done and helps to understand the facts and its relationship to one another. Details on the chart must be obtained from direct observation. Should not be from memory. Neatness and accuracy important. Increased value if following is included: Product, equipment details (code#, drawing#) Job or process being carried out Location and time (date) of the study Observers name Chart reference number
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Examine critically
Means by which each activity is subjected to a systematic and progressive series of questions. Grouping of activities: Five sets of activities can be grouped in two categories Those in which something actually happens to the work-piece (it is moved, worked upon or examined) Those in which it is not being touched (in storage or in delay) Objective is to maximize proportion of do activities. All other activities, however necessary, are considered nonproductive.
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Primary questions
The PURPOSE for which The PLACE at which The SEQUENCE in which The PERSON by whom The MEANS by which .the activities are undertaken. With a view to ELIMINATING, COMBINING, REARRANGING, or SIMPLIFYING those activities.
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Primary questions
PURPOSE PLACE SEQUENCE PERSON MEANS What? Why? Where? When? Who? How? SIMPLIFY the operation
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Facility layout
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Material handling
Material handling
Typically material handing may take up to 85% of the total process time. Only important method study principle: Motion Economy! Material handling adds to the cost of manufacture but adds nothing to the value of the product. Therefore, ideally there should be no material handling. Typical material handling problem solved in the same way as all method study problem start with asking questions. Most important question: WHY is this handling done?
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Movement of workers
String diagram
A scale plan or model on which a thread is used to trace and measure the path of workers, material or equipment during a specified sequence of events. A special form of flow diagram, in which a thread is used to measure distance. Necessary that the string diagram be drawn correctly to scale, whereas regular flow diagram can be drawn only approximately to scale. Start using the string diagram by recording all the relevant facts from direct observation. Like flow diagram, it will most often be used to supplement a flow process chart.
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String diagram
Thus, string diagram and flow chart can give clearest possible picture of what is actually being done. Flow process chart will be examined critically in order to make sure that all unnecessary activities are eliminated before a new method is proposed and tested using string diagram. String diagram can be used to plot movements of material to know how far the materials travel. Most commonly, the string diagram is used for plotting the movements of workers.
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Travel chart
String diagrams take a rather long time to construct. And when a great many movements along complex paths are involved, the diagram looks like ugly mess of criss-crossing lines. When the movement patterns are complex, the travel chart is quicker and more manageable recording technique. It is a tabular record for presenting quantitative data about movements of workers, materials or equipment between any number of places over any given period of time. It is represented as a square matrix: columns indicating origin of movement and rows the destination. Or vice versa. Data could be travel time taken, distance traveled etc.
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Travel chart
The person conducting the study doesnt have to trace the actual path from origin to destination. Just the start and end of the travel is recorded as corresponding columns and row.
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