Multilevel Logic Synthesis

-- Introduction

Multilevel Logic Synthesis: Outline

Introduction
What is multilevel logic? Why we need it? Problems and challenges.

Multilevel Logic Synthesis and Minimization

Restructuring Technology Independent Local Optimization

Technology Mapping Delay Analysis and Optimization (*)

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Multilevel Logic vs. Two-Level Logic TwoExample: Let F=ab+ab, define G and H as follows:
if F is true, then G=cd+ad, H=cd+ad+e(f+b), else G=e(f+b), H=(cd+ad)e(f+b).

MultiMulti-Level Implementation:
G=F(cd+ad)+Fe(f+b) H=F(cd+ad+e(f+b))+F(cd+ad)e(f+b)
c d a d f b
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4-level 5-level

F F e

Multilevel Logic vs. Two-Level Logic TwoExample: Let F=ab+ab, define G and H as follows:
if F is true, then G=cd+ad, H=cd+ad+e(f+b), else G=e(f+b), H=(cd+ad)e(f+b). G = F(cd+ad)+Fe(f+b) = (ab + ab)(cd + ad) + (ab + ab)(e)(f + b) = abcd + abd + acdb + e(f+b)(a+b)(a +b) = abcd + abd + acdb + (efa + efb + eba)(a+b) = abcd + abd + acdb + efab + efba + eba THIS IS MORE COMPLICATED TO IMPLEMENT

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Multilevel Logic vs. Two-Level Logic TwoTwoTwo-level:

At most two gates between a primary input and a primary output. Real life circuits: PLA. Exact optimization methods: well-developed, feasible. wellHeuristics.

MultiMulti-level:
Any number of gates between a primary input and a primary output. Most circuits in real life are multilevel (e.g. standard cells, FPGA). Smaller, less power, and (in many cases) faster. Exact optimization methods: few, high complexity, impractical. Heuristics.

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Optimization Objectives
1. Area: occupied by the logic gates and interconnect, e.g.
measured by one literal = one transistor in technology independent optimization.

2. Delay: measured by the longest path (critical path) through

the logic.

3. Power Consumption
Optimization is performed while simultaneously satisfying upper/lower bound constraints placed on these physical quantities.

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Optimization Cost Criteria

(Figure source: Prof. Braytons lecture notes.)

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Technology Independent
A design is technology independent when the formula (function, system) has no connection with the building blocks in the implementation. Advantage: cost can be simply estimated by the number of logic
symbols (I.e. one literal = one transistor), delay is the length of the critical path, better for local optimization.

Example: Full Adder z(x,y,c) = XOR(x,y,c) = xyc+xyc+xyc+xyc cnew(x,y,c) = Majority(x,y,c) = xy+(x+y)c The literal count is 12+5=17 The critical path delay is 3: xpx+yp(x+y)cpcnew xpx+yp(x+y)cp
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Technology Dependent
A design is technology dependent if the formula (function, circuit, system) is implemented by one or more logic gates in a pre-designed preset of gates (called technology library or cell library). library). Advantage: gates in the cell library
have a highly optimized, pre-defined prepath to silicon, so that the area and delay parameters are known and accurate.
signal formula gate transi stors

g a b e z d h f j cnew

(xy) g (x+y) (a+b) ec+ec b (dc) h (a+f) j

NAND NOT NOR NOR XOR NOT NAND NOT NOR NOT

4 2 4 4 8 2 4 2 4 2
9

Example: Full Adder

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Multilevel Logic Synthesis Problem

Goal:
Model the multilevel logic Optimize the logic based on the cost criteria

Difficulty:
Multilevel gives more design freedom and increases the design complexity Technology dependent/independent views

Models:
Algebraic forms Boolean networks

Optimization Techniques: HARD

Exact method: few, exponential complexity, impractical Approximation method: heuristic algorithm, rules-based methods rulesENEE 644 10

Sum of Products (SOP)

Example: Advantages:
abc+abd+bd+bef

Easy to manipulate and minimize. Algorithms available (e.g. AND, OR, TAUTOLOGY). TwoTwo-level theory applies.

Disadvantages:
Not representative of logic complexity. For example
f=ad+ae+bd+be+cd+ce f=abc+de which differ in their implementation by an inverter.

Difficult to estimate logic and to estimate progress during logic manipulation.

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Factored Forms: Overview

Example: Advantages:
(ad+bc)(c+d(e+ac))+(d+e)fg

Good representative of logic complexity

f=ad+ae+bd+be+cd+ce=(a+b+c)(d+e) f=ad+ae+bd+be+cd+ce=(a+b+c)(d+e) f=abc+de

Good estimator of logic implementation complexity Implicitly Imply Multi-Level Computation (Computation Multiusing tree)

Disadvantages:
Not many algorithms available for manipulation Not canonical: ab+c(a+b)=bc+a(b+c)=ac+b(a+c)
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Factored Forms: Definition

A factored form is defined recursively by the rules:
1. A product is either a single literal or a product of factored form. 2. A sum is either a single literal or a sum of factored forms. 3. A factored form is either a product or a sum

Another point of view: Example:

p pl p pf*f s pl s pf+f f pp f ps (1) (base case) (2) (3) (base case) (4) (5) (6)

Factored forms: x, y, abc, ab+c, ((a+b)cd+e)(a+b)+e. However, (a+b)c is not, although it equals abc. This is because internal complement in not allowed
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Factoring Tree
Factored forms can be graphically represented as labeled trees, called factoring trees, in which trees, each internal node including the root is labeled with either + or , and each leaf has a label of either a variable or its complement.
+

Example: ((a+b)cd+e)(a+b)+e
+

e b

e a

c d b
14

a
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Equivalent Factorizations
Two factored forms are equivalent if they represent the same logic function.
Example: a(b+c)+bc and ab+c(a+b)

Two factored forms are syntactically equivalent if their factoring tree are isomorphic. (WHAT IS ISOMOSRPHIC?)
Example: (a+b)(c+d)e and a(b+c)+bc and
+

(c+d)e(a+b) ab+c(a+b)
+

a b
+

b c
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c a b c

b
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Maximal Factorizations
A factored form is maximally factored if
For every sum of products, there are no two syntactically equivalent factors in the products; For every product of sums, there are no two syntactically equivalent factors in the sums.

Example:
ab+ac is not maximally factored, a(b+c) is. (a+b)(a+c) is not maximally factored, a+bc is.
+

a b a

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Optimum Factored Forms

The size of a factored form f, V(f), is the number of literals in the factored form. Example:
V((a+b)ca) = 4 V((a+b+cd)(a+b)) = 6

A factored form is optimum if no other equivalent factored form has fewer literals. Example:
ab+ac+bc is not optimum (ab+ac+bc = ab+ac).

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Unate Factored Forms

A factored form F is positive unate in x, if x appears in F, but x does not. A factored form is negative unate in x, if x appears in F, but x does not. F is unate in either case, and is binate if it is not unate. Example:
(a+b)c+a is (positive) unate in c, (negative) unate in b, and binate in a.

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Cofactor of Factored Forms

The cofactor of a factored form F with respect to a literal x (or x ) is the factored form Fx= Fx=1(x) (or Fx=Fx=0(x) ) obtained by: replacing all occurrences of x by 1, and x by 0 simplifying the factored form using the Boolean algebra identities 1y=y 1+y=1 0y=0 0+y=y after constant propagation (all constants are removed), part of the factored form may appear as G + G. In general, G is another factored form, and the G. Gs may have different factored forms.

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Cofactor of Factored Forms

The cofactor of a factored form F with respect to a cube c is a factored form obtained by successively cofactoring F with each literal in c. Example:
F = (x+y+z)(xu+zy(v+u)) and c = vz
Fz = (x+y)(xu+y(v+u)) Fz v = (x+y)(xu+y)

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Algebraic and Boolean Expressions

f is an algebraic expression if f is a set of cubes (SOP), such that no single cube contains another (minimal with respect to single cube containment). Otherwise, f is called expression. a Boolean expression.
Example: a+bc is algebraic, a+ab is Boolean. (ab+ac+bc???)

Special Properties of Boolean Algebra:

a+a = aa = a aa a+bc = (a+b)(a+c) a+ab = a

The support of an expression f, supp(f), is the set of variables that f explicitly depends on. Two expressions f and g are said to be orthogonal if supp(f)supp(g)=J, supp(f)supp(g)=J denoted by fBg.
Example: a+b B c+d
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Algebraic and Boolean Factored Forms

A factored form f is said to be algebraic if the SOP expression obtained by multiplying f out directly (I.e. without using aa=a+a=a, aa=0, a+ab=a) Boolean. is algebraic, otherwise it is Boolean. Example: abg+acg+adf+aef+afg+bd+ce+be+cd
(b+c)(d+e)+((d+e+g)f+(b+c)g)a =(bd+be+cd+ce)+(df+ef+gf+bg+cg)a = bd+ce+be+cd+abg+acg+adf+aef+afg (b+c)(d+e+ag)+(d+e+g)af (af+b+c)(ag+d+e) afag+afd+afe+bag+bd+be+cag+cd+ce =afag+afd+afe+bag+bd+be+cag+cd+ce =afg+adf+aef+abg+acg+bd+be+cd+ce afg+adf+aef+abg+acg+bd+be+cd+ce
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(algebraic) (algebraic)

(Boolean)
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Value of a Factorization
Given an algebraic factorization F=G1G2+R, its +R, factorization value is given by:
fact_val(F,G2) = lits(F)-(lits(G1)+lits(G2)+lits(R)) lits(F)-

where lits(F) and cubes(F) are the number of literals and cubes in SOP form of F respectively, G1,G2, and R are algebraic expressions.
F = ae+af+ag+bce+bcf+bcg+bde+bdf+bdg can be expressed in the form F = (a+b(c+d))(e+f+g), which requires 7 (a+b(c+d))(e+f+g), literals, rather than 24, a save of 17 literals. If G1=(a+bc+bd) and G2=(e+f+g), then R= and fact_val(F,G2) = =(e+f+g), R= 2v3+2v5=16. Where the extra literal saving comes from? 3+2v5=16.
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Example: The algebraic expression