UNIT-1

NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND ELECTRON BALLASTICS

Inside Atoms: neutrons, protons,

electrons

Carbon (C )
Atomic number Z=6
(number of protons)

Gold (Au)
A=12 Atomic number Z = 79 Mass number
(trust me!)

Mass number

(number of protons + neutrons)

# electrons = # protons
(count them!) (atom is electrically neutral)

A = 197

#electrons = # protons

Structure of atomic nucleus

Three fundamental subatomic particleselectrons, protons, neutrons. Nucleus comprise of whole mass of atom. Electron moves in the space surrounding the nucleus.

 1amu=1.6605410-27Kg with energy equivalence=931.49MeV. PROTONS : 1.007276AMU NEUTRONS : 1.008665AMU ELECTRONS : 0.0005486AMU

CLASSIFICATION OF ATOMS
ISOTOPES ISOTONES ISOBARS MIRROR NUCLEI

STATIC PROPERTY OF NUCLEUS

1. Nuclear mass:- it includes the mass of proton & mass of neutron. Nuclear mass = Zmp  Nmn But real mass <Zmp  Nmn Hence mass defectm =Zmp  Nmn -(real mass)

(2) Nuclear charge:-the charge on the nucleus is contained by protons in it i.e,Ze.so it carries (+Z1.610-19coulomb)

(3) Nuclear size:-it is a sphere of radius R of the order of 10-14 to 10-15 m

R ! R0
1fm=10-15 m

1/ 3

(4) Nuclear density:massof nucleus density ! volume of spherical nucleus

(5) Nuclear forces:-binding energy for nucleon is 8MeV

DEFINITION OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Radioactive decay is the process of spontaneous emission of radiation in the form of particles or photons from the nuclei of unstable atoms

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive Decay Radioactive decay, or the electromagnetic de excitation of nuclei, is a source of gamma-ray line emission. Observation of such gamma-rays confirms that the excited states of nuclei are being produced, while the measured fluxes and spectra identify the specific nuclei and the rate of their excitation.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive decay refers to the spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus of an unstable atomic nucleus The ratio of neutrons to protons is largely determinant of the stability of the nucleus and the tendency for radioactive decay to occur

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

It is a natural process in our universe It is spontaneous we cannot predict when an atom will undergo decay

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TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY

1. NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

2. ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY

Laws of radioactive decay

Given RUTHERFORD and SODDY First law:-radioactivity is spontaneous phenomenon ,which atom will atoms undergo disintegration first is a matter of chance Second law:-radioactive element undergo spontaneous disintegration forming new element by emission of , & rays. Third law:-the number of atoms disintegrate per second of radioactive sample at any instant is directly proportional to number of atoms present at that time.

No of unchanged atoms

Decay curve

N ! N 0e  Pt

N-dN

t+dt

time

Decay constant
It is the ratio of the amount of the substance disintegrated in unit time to the amount of substance present. It is also defined as reciprocal of that time duration for which the number of atom of radioactive substance falls to 37% of its original value.

Rate of decay
From experiment, we find that the amount of decay of a radioactive material depends only on two things: the amount of radioactive material and the type of radioactive material (the particular isotope). The rate of decay does NOT depend on temperature, pressure, chemical composition, etc.

Radioactive disintegration
When element is disintegrated by emitting particles it is turned into new element with chemical properties similar to those of an element two place earlier in periodic table. Element disintegrated by emission of particle it is turned into new element with properties similar to those of an element one place later in periodic table.

Units of radioactivity 1 curie =3.7 1010 dis / sec 1 r d = 106 dis / sec

HALF LIFE PERIOD

The time in which one half of the radioactive substance is Disintegrated. Decay of Radium T1/2 = 1620 years

Nuclear Radiation
The nuclei of all elements with atomic number greater than 82 (lead) are unstable (radioactive). They spontaneously emit radiation in the form of alpha particles (helium nuclei). beta particles (electrons). gamma rays (photons).

Since alpha and beta particles are charged, they are deflected by a magnet when they move in a direction perpendicular to that of of the magnetic field.

Properties of Nuclear Radiation

In matter, gamma rays are the most penetrating and alpha particles are the least penetrating. When a nucleus emits alpha or beta particles, it becomes a new element. The rate of radioactive decay of an element is measured in terms of its half-life T1/2, the time required for half the atoms in a sample to decay.

BASIC TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Alpha (E) decay

Occurs when atomic nuclei have too many protons and neutrons (i.e., Are heavy)

11

ALPHA PARTICLE

12

CHACTERISTICS OF ALPHA PARTICLES

Consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons Mass of an alpha particle is ~8000 me or 4 amu Charge = +2 Are highly ionizing Have low penetrating abilities (only cm in air and mm in water) they are deflected by electric and magnetic field. They affect photographic plate. Scattered while passing through metal foil.

13

MORE ABOUT ALPHA PARTICLES

Easily shielded; common types of shielding are paper, cardboard, air, clothing; will not penetrate skin Health hazard when taken internally Not commonly used in medicine Common sources = smoke detectors (Am-241) and lantern mantles (thorium nitrate)
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ALPHA PARTICLE DECAY

Changes both the mass and identity of the nucleus of the parent radionuclide This means that the decay results in the formation of a new element as the daughter product If X is the parent nucleus and Yis daughter nucleus then mass of the daughter nucleus is reduced by 4 and atomic number is reduced by 2
15

NEGATIVE BETA (-) DECAY

Occurs when atoms have too many neutrons (i.e., Are neutron-rich) and decay by emitting a negative beta particle (-)

17

WHAT ARE NEGATIVE BETA PARTICLES?

During negative beta decay, excess neutrons are converted into protons, electrons, and antineutrinos. The protons remain in the nucleus but the new electrons are emitted as negative beta particles (-) or negatrons.

18

CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGATIVE BETA DECAY

Less ionizing than alphas due to decreased mass of negatrons Changes the identity of the nucleus but not the mass The z number is increased due to conversion of neutrons into protons they are deflected by electric and magnetic field they can effect photographic plate they can produce artificial radioactivity
19

CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGATIVE BETA PARTICLES (NEGATRONS)

 Negatrons consist of nuclear electrons  The mass is the same as electrons  There is a charge of 1 in negatrons  More penetrating than alpha particles; ~ 12 meters in air  They can penetrate skin best shielding is wood, plastics, thick cardboard, etc.
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GAMMA (K) EMISSION Is a form of pure electromagnetic radiation emitted from nuclei that have excess energy. It is sometimes called gamma photon radiation.

25

GAMMA RAYS: Are photons emitted from unstable nuclei to rid themselves of excess energy. Gamma photons are subatomic packets of pure energy. They are higher in energy and more penetrating than the photons that make up visible light.
26

PROPERTIES OF GAMMMA (K)

 Charge is 0 (no charge)  Mass is 0 (no mass)  Low ionization  Penetration abilities can be extremely high; penetrating power is dependent up on the energy of the emitted photons
28

Radioactive Decay Law

activity
number of decays per time (unit: Becquerel) dN A ! dt

life time
1 X ! P

half life
t 1/ 2 ln 2 ! P

decay constant P
dN ! N P dt

decay law (from integration) N (t ) ! N 0 exp Pt

Activity
N(t) = No e-Pt A = PN = Aoe-Pt T(half life) = ln(2) / P . If the half life is large, P is small. This means that if the radioactive isotope will last a long time, its activity will be small; if the half life is small, the activity will be large but only for a short time! Review:

NUCLEAR REACTION structure of nuclei can be changed by bombarding with fast moving particles .identity of particle is changed in the process ,such process is called nuclear reaction.

Nuclear Reactions
Elements may be artificially transmuted by bombarding them with energetic particles from an accelerator, or in a nuclear reactor.

 Short-lived radioactive elements (e.g. iodine-

131, half-life of 8 days) that are used in medical diagnosis of the thyroid gland are created this way.

CONSERVATION LAWS IN NUCLEAR REACTION 1. conservation of charge

2. conservation of nucleons 3. conservation of mass & energy 4. conservation of linear momentum 5. conservation of angular moment 6. conservation of spin & statistics

Q-value of nuclear reaction

The energy either absorbed or emitted during nuclear reaction is called Qvalue of reaction. Q-POSITIVE energy is liberated Q-NEGATIVE energy is absorbed

NUCLEAR REACTION
types of nuclear reaction; transmutation by particle ( ,p) , ( ,n )  transmutation by protons (p , ) (p , n) (p , d) (p , )  transmutation by neutrons (n , ) (n,2n) (n ,p) (n, ) (n,n)  transmutation by photons ( ,n) ( ,p)  transmutation bydeutron (d, ) (d,p) (d,n) (d,2n)

NUCLEAR FISSION
The process in which heavy nucleus after absorbing a neutron , splits into two lighter nuclei of nearly equal mass .

What is nuclear fission ?

Nuclear fission:
lighter nuclei are created by splitting heavier nuclei.

Only (controlled) fission has been achieved by mankind.

Nuclear Fission (splitting apart)

In stable atomic nuclei, the repulsive electrical forces between protons are balanced by attractive forces between protons and neutrons. If a fissile nucleus absorbs a neutron, it may become elongated and separate due to the electrical forces.

1 0

n

235 92

U p

236 92

U p

142 56

91 1 Ba  36 Kr  3 0 n

 Natural uranium ore contains only one U-235 atom for every 140 U-238 atoms (0.7 %), insufficient for a critical mass. The much more abundant U-238 is not fissile To create a critical mass to fuel a nuclear reactor, the U235 fraction must be artificially enriched to about 3%. To create a supercritical mass for a nuclear weapon, the U235 fraction must be artificially enriched to about 90%. Uranium enrichment is typically accomplished by mass analysis in a particle accelerator, by diffusion of uraniumhexafluoride gas, or by a centrifuge.

Uranium Isotope Enrichment

CHAIN REACTION
It is the process in which the nuclear fission of atom induces the fission of other which again induces the fission in other atom & so on.

Nuclear Chain Reaction

 The 3 neutrons released from the fissioning of uranium-235 can be absorbed by 3 other uranium-235 nuclei, causing 3 more fissions and a selfsustaining chain reaction.

 A chain reaction requires a critical

mass of uranium-235 to be present, so the released neutrons can be reabsorbed by other atoms.

 Each fission reaction typically releases

more than 100 million electron volts in the form of kinetic energy of the products (about 10 million times the energy released by chemical reactions).

Chain Reaction
fission process produces several neutrons
fragments would be too neutron rich! these neutrons can in turn initiate fission processes. chain reaction, if at least 1 neutron leads to a new fission
isotope

nuclear reactor
produce thermal neutrons through moderation

beyond a critical mass can fission material be explosive

U 239 Pu 251 Cf

235

average number o f neutrones 2.43 2.9 3.8

M crit ( 0 )

M crit ( 5 0 )

M crit (1 0 0 )

22.8 kg 16.5 kg few kg

0.66 kg

0.165 kg few g

TYPES OF CHAIN REACTION 1. CONTROLLED CHAIN REACTION 2. UNCONTROLLED CHAIN REACTION

Neutron multification factor

The number of neutron present in one generation to the number of neutron present in previous generation

no of neutrons present in one generation k! no of neutron present in previous generation

The effective neutron multiplication factor k is the average number of neutrons from these 2.5 or 3 cause another fission reaction, as opposed to neutrons produced by the fission which are being absorbed without causing a new fission, and those travelling out of the system.

General condition for self sustained chain reaction

k < 1 (sub-critical mass): starting with one fission, we have on average a total of 1/(1 k) fissions. Any beginning of a chain reaction dies out quickly. k = 1 (critical mass): Starting with one free neutron, the expected value of the number of free neutrons resulting from it is 1 at any time; in the course of time there is a decreasing additional probability that the beginning chain reaction has died out, which is compensated by the possibility of multiple neutrons still being present. k > 1 (super-critical mass): starting with one free neutron, there is a non-trivial probability that is does not cause a fission or that a beginning chain reaction dies out.

Critical size

Nuclear Fission
most stable nuclei at A=60
fission of heavy nuclei yields energy gain

Weizscker-formula:
deformation leads to increase of surface energy, but to decrease of Coulomb energy

spontaneous fission for Z 2 " 51 A in general via tunnel effect

Nuclear Fission Power Reactor

A nuclear power plant resembles a conventional coal- or gas-burning power plant, except that nuclear reactions replace chemical reactions as the source of heat to generate steam.

Components of nuclear reactor

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Reactor core Reactor reflector Moderator coolant reactor control material Reactor sheilding

Site selection of nuclear reactor Storage for 10,000 years, (minimum) Isolation from the Water Table Arid Climate Rock of Low Porosity and Permeability Future Climate Change unlikely to raise water table Rock Absorbent of spills and Dissipative Very Low Rate of Surface Erosion Low Probability of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

NUCLEAR FUSION
process in which two lighter nuclei are combined to fused together to form a heavier and a Stable nucleus.

Nuclear Fusion (joining together)

The lightest elements may join together in a fusion reaction to form a heavier element, releasing kinetic energy carried by the products (about1,000,000 times that released in chemical reactions).

 Nuclear fusion reactions involving hydrogen

fuel our sun and the stars.

Energy released in Nuclear fusion

1H 2 + 1H 2 He4 2

Harnessing Fusion Energy

Uncontrolled fusion energy has been achieved in the hydrogen atomic bomb. Repulsive electrical forces inhibit nuclei from getting close enough to fuse together in a reactor. Violent collisions at extremely high temperatures (hundreds of millions of degrees) are needed to harness fusion as an energy source. Such conditions require magnetic bottles to hold the ionized fuel away from the reactor walls. Fusion offers the promise of an almost limitless supply of hydrogen fuel in the oceans, but is the most significant scientific and technical challenge that mankind has faced.

Nuclear fusion in stars

Energy is radiated by the sun at the rate of 106 joules / sec. Energy is produced in stars by following two process:Proton proton cycle

1.

2. Carbon nitrogen cycle (CNO)

Proton-Proton Chain

IN: 6 H, (2 e-) OUT: He, 2 H, 2 Re, 4 K Effectively 4 H nuclei are converted into 1 He nucleus and energy is released.

The CNO Cycle

In the high temperature condition in the core of the high-mass stars, another fusion process (the CNO cycle) can fuse hydrogen into helium at a much faster rate than the proton-proton cycle. The heavier elements (carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) act as catalysis to speed up the hydrogen fusion process The net result is the same as the proton-proton chain the creation of a helium atom and release of energy from fusion of four hydrogen nuclei (protons). The numbers of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen remain the same before and after the reaction. Where did the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen come from?

1H1

2He4

6C12

1H1

7N15

7N13

1eo

1e0

8O15

6C13

1H1

7N14

CNO CYCLE

Why does fusion occur in the Suns core ?

Nuclear fusion
heavier nuclei are created by combining (fusing) lighter nuclei. all nuclei are positively charged

Electromagnetic force causes nuclei to repel each other.

for fusion, nuclei must be moving fast to overcome E-M repulsion this requires high temperatures & pressures

When nuclei touch, the nuclear force binds them together

Fusion Reactions in Stars

There are many fusion reactions happening in the core of the stars. These reactions are responsible for producing the heavy elements. Helium Capture: capture of helium by heavier elements Heavy element fusion

If we know the condition inside the stars, we can estimate the amount of heavy elements we should haveand check them with spectroscopy

The Suns Energy Source

the Sun generates energy via nuclear fusion reactions Hydrogen is converted into Helium in the Suns core the mass lost in this conversion is transformed into energy the amount of energy is given by Einsteins equation: E = mc2 given the Suns mass, this will provide enough energy for the Sun to shine for 10 billion years

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Neutrinos

Feel weak force predicted p later discovered

100,000,000,000,000 per second pass through each person from the Sun

Antiparticles

Equal and opposite properties predicted p later discovered Annihilate with normal particles Now used in PET scans Many new particles created in high energy collisions

1950s, 1960s

Convert energy to mass. Einstein E = mc2

> 200 new elementary (?) particles

Institute of P h ysics P eter K alm u s P article s a n d th e U niv e rs e

Thomson (1897): Discovers electron

1x10 10 m

1x10 15 m

0.7 x10 15 m

e 0.7 x10 18 m

60 60 0 0 27 Co p 28 Ni  1 e 0 Y

Q = -1e almost all trapped in atoms Q= 0 all freely moving through universe

Just as the equation x2=4 can have two possible solutions (x=2 OR x=-2), so Dirac's equation could have two solutions, one for an electron with positive energy, and one for an electron with negative energy. Dirac interpreted this to mean that for every particle that exists there is a corresponding antiparticle, exactly matching the particle but with opposite charge. For the electron, for instance, there should be an "antielectron" called the positron identical in every way but with a positive electric charge.

K p e  e
1928 Dirac predicted existence of antimatter 1932 antielectrons (positrons) found in conversion of energy into matter 1995 antihydrogen consisting of antiprotons and positrons produced at CERN In principle an antiworld can be built from antimatter Produced only in accelerators and in cosmic rays

K rays p e   e 

e  e p 2hf

Q!

2 3

Q ! 1

Q!

1 3

Q!0

James Joyce

Murray Gell-Mann

1 3 1  3 1  3 

2  3 2  3  2 3

12

T oda ys buildin g blocks

 2 2 1   ! 1 3 3 3

Le ptons
(do not feel strong force)

Q uarks
(feel strong force)

pro to n = u u d
2 3

electron e -n e utrino

eRe

-1 up 0 do w n

u d

2 1 1 + 2/3 + 2/3 -1/3 = + 1   !0 3 3 3

+ 2/3 1 -1/3 
3

ne utron = u d d
+ 2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0

4 pa rtic les

very sim p le

F irst g ene ratio n

m ultiply b y 3 (g e n era tio ns) m ultiply b y 2 (a n tip articles)

Motion in electric and magnetic fields

For single particle, with no radiation losses and no space charge effects: dp
dt ! q( E  Y v B ) (Lorentz)

There are many possibilities, depending on existence and time-dependence of E and B . For example, if there is no magnetic field and a time-independent electric field along the z-axis, then electrostatic accelerator. If the electric field is time-dependent, then Linac. If qB

E ! 0 and BU ! Br ! 0 and Bz B Y then circular motion with [ ! U!

= cyclotron frequency. If = radius of curvature, then

p ! qBz V or p[in MeV/c] ! 300Bz [T]V [ m]

Motion in electric and magnetic fields

Some other possibilities listed below:

Accelerator
Cyclotron Synchrocyclotron Synchrotron

 Fixed

B Fixed Variable Variable Fixed

Variable Fixed Variable Variabl e

Orbital accelerators
As wording implies, focusing in these machines is weak and, in the early versions, the pole gaps in the magnets were very large. Strong focusing dispenses with the requirement of n<1 but now the action of the field gradient becomes focusing in one plane but defocusing in the other. This is analogous to an optical system of converging-diverging lenses, separated by a gap. The net result is focusing in both planes. The strong focusing principle (sometimes referred to as alternating gradient focusing) was discovered in the early 50s and had a profound effect on the design of particle accelerators. Magnet gaps were reduced by a factor of about 10 and magnet sizes by about 100.

Cyclotrons
As mentioned earlier, this is a constant frequency orbital accelerator, but one in which the orbit radius increases. Frequency given by: qB
[! m

Correct for low energies, but as mass increases, orbital frequency changes and resonance condition is no longer fulfilled. To overcome this, either: i. modulate the frequency synchrocyclotron or ii. allow Bz to increase with R, to keep =const. Now n<0 and axial motion is unstable. This can be restored by abandoning cylindrical symmetry of B field, i.e. magnet is now split into segments, and using the focusing of the magnet edges sector focused cyclotron. Applications i. Nuclear Physics ii. isotope production iii. therapy iv. radioactive beam production

Synchrotrons
Principle of operation: This is a constant radius accelerator where both the frequency and the magnetic field vary with time in order to maintain the synchronism condition. qB Now and it is easy to show [ ! q B R m [1  ] that:
2 2 2 1/ 2 0

m c

2 0

 qB q x[  [! and ! 3 3 m0K xB R m0K

Therefore, angular frequency increases at B-dependent rate, initially fast but then more and more slowly, as >>1. Energy range for p beams: Conventional magnets give fields of up to 2T. There is a min. field of about 10-2 T, hence Emin 5x10-3 Emax Hence, the beam has to be injected with Emin, which is provided by a linac or another synchrotron (booster) or a linac-booster combination. Superconducting magnets provide Bmax 8T and Bmin=?

Synchrotrons
Energy range for (e-,e+) beams: At medium energies, previous comments apply. Above about 10GeV, SR loss is severe. Accelerator cost optimization requires that maximum machine radius Rmax (Emax)2. Hence, Bmax 1/Emax. Typically, LEP had Bmax 0.1T. Synchrotrons do not need a continuous magnet around the orbit but operate with a ring of magnets. Therefore, they have achieved major savings in the magnet iron. They are the main machine for high energy physics.

A note on synchrotron radiation

Accelerated charges emit radiation whose power (P) is given by:
2 e2 6    P! K F .F  ( F v F ) 2 3c

(Lienard, 1898)

For linear motion,

1 dp dF  , hence F v F ! 0 and ! dt m0cK 3 dt 2 e 2 dp 2 2 e 2 dE 2 ( ) ! ( ) P! 2 3 2 3 3 m0 c dt 3 m0 c dx

For a linear accelerator dE/dx must be of the order of 1014 MeV/m before this becomes significant compared to power supplied by external sources. For circular machines 2 e 2e c
2 2

P!

3m c

2 0

K [ p !
2 2

3 V

F 4K 4 , where V ! radius.

Note extra K 2 term.

Synchrotron radiation
For , the energy given by: lost per turn has a numerical value
2

E4 HE ( MeV) ! 8.85 x10 , ( E in GeV, V in m) V

Some numbers: for LEP at 86GeV, 1.37GeV/electron; there are about 6x1012 electrons/beam, hence power lost is 20MW; power needed for RF is about 96MW. SR was originally perceived as a nuisance; now it is a field with many important applications, with large, dedicated accelerators (ESRF at Grenoble, ALS at Brookhaven, DIAMOND at RAL etc).

CYCLOTRON
Principle:-The cyclotron was one of the earliest types of particle accelerators, It makes use of the magnetic force on a moving charge to bend moving charges into a semicircular path between accelerations by an applied electric field. The applied electric field accelerates electrons between the "dees" of the magnetic field region. The field is reversed at the cyclotron frequency to accelerate the electrons back across the gap.

CYCLOTRON FREQUENCY
A moving charge in a cyclotron will move in a circular path under the influence of a constant magnetic field. If the time to complete one orbit is calculated:
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it is found that the period is independent of the radius. Therefore if a square wave is applied at angular frequency qB/m, the charge will spiral outward, increasing in speed

 When a square wave of angular frequency

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is applied between the two sides of the magnetic poles, the charge will be boosted again at just the right time to accelerate it across the gap. Thus the constant cyclotron frequency can continue to accelerate the charge (so long as it is not relativistic).

BAINBRIDGE MASSSPECTROGRAPH