Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Definiteness Condensation Comparison Formulate and test hypothesis Prediction Formulation of policies
Marketing Production Finance Banking Investment Purchase Accounting Control Credit Personnel R&D
measurement. Deals only with quantitative characteristics. Results are true only on an average. Only means. May be misused.
Secondary Data
Suitable Adequate Reliable Collecting agency was unbiased? If sample, representative? Enumerator well trained? Proper check on accuracy of field work? Editing, tabulating, and analysis carefully done? What was the degree of desired accuracy?
1. Cover letter
A short letter stating purpose Self-addressed envelop Assuring confidentiality.
Sensitive question should be avoided Instruction for respondent Footnotes Capable of objective answer (dichotomous, MCQ, Open ended) No calculation required Pre testing Cross check Incentive to respondent Methods of tabulation
Prepare a questionnaire
May take two basic form: Table Chart But to ensure that we also classify them
Grouping of related facts into different classes. Similar as sorting in Post office. Types of Classification 1. Geographical 2. Chronological 3. Qualitative 4. Quantitative
Two elements
Variables (characteristics): wage, Price Frequency: number at each class Variable may be discrete (Every conceivable fractional value, Height, weight) or continuous (only finite) Measurement = Continuous Count= Discrete
Tally
Freq.
Class limit 20-40 Lowest-Highest Class Interval: Upper-lower Class Frequency Class Mid point: (upper + lower)/2
No of classes 5-15, not hard & fast Approx. K=1+3.322LogN Avoid odd values of Class interval
i=Range/1+3.322LogN Class should start from 0 or 5 or its / Continuity Same size of Class
42 37 67 18 55 45
42 48 53 49 16 23 37 35 58 57 69 25
We do not know which geographic area the data refer to. The data source is not identified. The values are centered rather than right-aligned. The values should not be displayed with two decimal places The total values should have the same number of decimal places as the other values. The abbreviation n/a is not explained. The grey shading and the lines of the same size between each row and each column do not help to understand the different data presented in the table.
A chart is a visual representation of statistical data, in which the data are represented by symbols such as bars or lines.
It is a very effective visual tool, as it displays data quickly and easily, facilitates comparison and can reveal trends and relationships within the data.
Diagram 2. Graph
1.
1. Title 2. Proportion
between
Height
and
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
One-dimensional e.g. Bar 2. Two-dimensional e.g. rectangle 3. Pictogram & Cartogram Refer to Book SP Gupta & MP Gupta
1.
Age (years) 10 11 12
Frequency 5 10 27
13
14 15 16
18
6 16 38
42+18 = 60
60+6 = 66 66+16 = 82 82+38 = 120
17
120+9 = 129