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the science that deals with the collection, classification, analysis, and interpretation of numerical facts or data,

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Definiteness Condensation Comparison Formulate and test hypothesis Prediction Formulation of policies

1. State 2. Business & Management


Marketing Production Finance Banking Investment Purchase Accounting Control Credit Personnel R&D

3. Economics 4. Physical Science 5. Natural Science 6. Research 7. Other users

Does not deal with isolated

measurement. Deals only with quantitative characteristics. Results are true only on an average. Only means. May be misused.

Secondary Data
Suitable Adequate Reliable Collecting agency was unbiased? If sample, representative? Enumerator well trained? Proper check on accuracy of field work? Editing, tabulating, and analysis carefully done? What was the degree of desired accuracy?

Internal Data Primary Data


Questioning Observation

1. Cover letter
A short letter stating purpose Self-addressed envelop Assuring confidentiality.

Promise, No harassment after response


Offer gift Copy of result if interested

2. No of question as few as possible


3. Logically arranged 4. Short and simple question

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Sensitive question should be avoided Instruction for respondent Footnotes Capable of objective answer (dichotomous, MCQ, Open ended) No calculation required Pre testing Cross check Incentive to respondent Methods of tabulation

Prepare a questionnaire

May take two basic form: Table Chart But to ensure that we also classify them

Grouping of related facts into different classes. Similar as sorting in Post office. Types of Classification 1. Geographical 2. Chronological 3. Qualitative 4. Quantitative

Two elements

Variables (characteristics): wage, Price Frequency: number at each class Variable may be discrete (Every conceivable fractional value, Height, weight) or continuous (only finite) Measurement = Continuous Count= Discrete

Highest to Lowest No of TV sold/day

Tally

Freq.

Class limit 20-40 Lowest-Highest Class Interval: Upper-lower Class Frequency Class Mid point: (upper + lower)/2

Exclusive and Inclusive 5000-6000 5000-5999

No of classes 5-15, not hard & fast Approx. K=1+3.322LogN Avoid odd values of Class interval

i=Range/1+3.322LogN Class should start from 0 or 5 or its / Continuity Same size of Class

20 22 35 65 39 48 49 63 65 29 58 65 Classify the interval.

42 37 67 18 55 45

42 48 53 49 16 23 37 35 58 57 69 25

data taking a suitable class

20 22 35 42 37 42 48 53 49 65 39 48 67 18 16 23 37 35 49 63 65 55 45 58 57 69 25 29 58 65 i=Range/1+3.322LogN range? Highest minus Lowest (67-16)=53 N=30

What should be the First Class?? 15-25 Is it inclusive or Exclusive??

Do you see any problem with the table?

We do not know which geographic area the data refer to. The data source is not identified. The values are centered rather than right-aligned. The values should not be displayed with two decimal places The total values should have the same number of decimal places as the other values. The abbreviation n/a is not explained. The grey shading and the lines of the same size between each row and each column do not help to understand the different data presented in the table.

A chart is a visual representation of statistical data, in which the data are represented by symbols such as bars or lines.
It is a very effective visual tool, as it displays data quickly and easily, facilitates comparison and can reveal trends and relationships within the data.

Some about Human Perception

Diagram 2. Graph
1.

1. Title 2. Proportion

between

Height

and

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

width Appropriate scale Footnote Index Neatness and cleanness Simplicity

One-dimensional e.g. Bar 2. Two-dimensional e.g. rectangle 3. Pictogram & Cartogram


1.

One-dimensional e.g. Bar 2. Two-dimensional e.g. rectangle 3. Pictogram & Cartogram


1.

One-dimensional e.g. Bar 2. Two-dimensional e.g. rectangle 3. Pictogram & Cartogram


1.

One-dimensional e.g. Bar 2. Two-dimensional e.g. rectangle 3. Pictogram & Cartogram Refer to Book SP Gupta & MP Gupta
1.

Age (years) 10 11 12

Frequency 5 10 27

Cumulative Frequency 5 5+10 = 15 15+27 = 42

13
14 15 16

18
6 16 38

42+18 = 60
60+6 = 66 66+16 = 82 82+38 = 120

17

120+9 = 129

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