Organisational Behaviour

Leadership

Leadership and Management

Managers require new skills to make the transition from the autocrat & supervisor role (1970s) and communicator & organiser role (1980+) to the coach, enabler and leader model for 2012 onwards.

Robbins & Judge P379: Working for a toxic boss.

Management and Leadership Traditional Distinctions

Managers Behaviours
Plan & Budget Organise & Staff Control

Leaders Behaviours
Vision & Direction Align employees Inspire & Motivate

Defining Leadership
The ability to influence others towards the achievement of goals
(Robbins & Judge, 2011:376) Worthwhile goals? Visionary? Formal or Informal?

Discussion Point
Think of a person you have worked with recently who you would consider to be a good leader. What is it that makes this person stand out as a leader?

Leadership Theories Over Time

Trait Theories
Characteristics of leaders

Behavioural Theories
Ohio University Studies University of Michigan Studies The Managerial Grid

Contingency Theories
Fiedler Hersey & Blanchard Leader-member Exchange Path-goal Theory Leader-participation Model

Leadership Theories Over Time

Contemporary Issues
Trust & Leadership Charismatic Leadership Transformational Leadership Emotional Intelligence & Leadership Moral Leadership Cross Cultural Leadership Differences in Male and Female Leadership

Trait theory: who leaders are

Sought to find universal personality, social, physical or intellectual traits that leaders had to a greater degree than non-leaders. EG: strength, selfconfidence, decisiveness, IQ. Leaders are born not made. Early research concluded trait theory was erroneous and over-simplified. No universal traits for leadership Little consideration to situational factors.

Trait Theories (cont.)

Big 5 personality framework & some recent research provides support for traits associated with leadership. EG
Ambition & energy (extraversion)
Conscientiousness & openness to experience Desire to lead Honesty & integrity Self-confidence Intelligence, including emotional intelligence Job-relevant knowledge Self-monitors

*** Predict emergence and appearance rather effectiveness Human Genome Map: Implications???

Trait Theory

Discussion Point
Suggest some personal traits of leaders you have

known or observed. Which traits do you

believe are most valuable. Why? Do introverts or extroverts make the best leaders?

http://www.forbes.com/2009/11/30/introverts-good-leaders-leadership-managing-personality.html

Behavioural Theories
What do leaders do? Specific behaviours differentiate leaders from nonleaders

If behaviours can be learned, leadership can be

learned & supply increased (select & train). Ohio State Studies University of Michigan Studies

Ohio Studies
Late 1940s (Ralph Stogdill) Identify behaviours which fostered goal attainment 1000+ dimensions reduced to 2 categories: Initiating Structure Consideration

Ohio State Studies: Initiating Structure and Consideration

Initiating Structure
The extent to which managers (leaders) are likely to define and structure their roles and those of employees. Focus on following rules, procedures, maintaining performance standards, making the roles of employees exact, meeting deadlines, etc. These behaviours are more TASK oriented

Ohio State Studies (cont.)

Consideration
The extent to which managers (leaders) are likely to

have job relationships based on mutual trust, respect

for subordinates ideas & regard for their feelings. Friendly, approachable, equitable, close

These behaviours are more RELATIONSHIP oriented.

The two styles are not mutually exclusive, ie leaders could be high on both task & relationship.

Ohio State Studies (cont.)

Research findings
High-High style = high performance & satisfaction more frequently. However not always HIS - increased grievances, absenteeism, turnover, lower satisfaction for routine tasks. HC - negatively related to performance ratings of leader by superior. Concluded that generally HH = positive outcomes but situational factors needed to be integrated.

Behavioral Theories
Ohio State

University of Michigan

Consideration

Employeeorientation

Initiating Structure

ProductionOrientation

University of Michigan Studies

Production (Job) Oriented
Emphasises technical or task aspects of the job. Findings: associated with lower group productivity and lower job satisfaction.

Employee Oriented
Emphasises interpersonal relations & human needs of subordinates. Findings: associated with higher group productivity & higher job satisfaction.
The two styles were thought to be distinct., ie leaders could not be high on both dimensions.

Behavioural Theories:

Discussion Point
Explain the similarities and differences between the findings of the Ohio and Michigan studies on leadership. Would you prefer working for a leader who has a task or relationship focus? Why? Do you think a leader can be both task-oriented and peopleoriented? Do you think your leadership style will change over time? Why?

The Managerial Grid

1,1: Impoverished management
Effective production is unobtainable because people are lazy, apathetic, and indifferent and also sound and mature relationships are impossible because human nature inevitably leads to conflict. High 9 Concern for People 1.9 9.9

8 7 6 5 4 1,9: Task management 3 People are a commodity, just like machines. A 2 manager's responsibility is to plan, direct and Low 1 control the work of subordinates.

5.5

1.1 Low

9.1

5,5: Dampened pendulum (middle of the road)

Push for production but not all out giving space and being fair but firm.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for Production

High

9,1: Country club management

Production is incidental to lack of conflict and good fellowship

9,9: Team management

Production is from integration of task and human requirements.

Fiedlers Contingency Model

Leader Behaviours
Task-oriented: Low LPC Relationship-oriented: High LPC

Contingency Variables
Leader/member relations (group atmosphere) Task structure (routine/non-routine) Leader position power (reward, legitimate, etc)

Leader Effectiveness Criteria

Performance. Match leaders style with situation most favourable for the leaders success. Style is fixed. . Implication?

Contingency Variables Affecting Leader Behaviour

Influences Influences

Contingencies
Groups characteristics Leaders characteristics Employees characteristics Organisational structure characteristics

Leaders Behaviours

Employees Behaviour

Feedback

Findings of the Fiedler Model

Good

Task-Oriented

Performance

Poor Favourable Moderate I II Good High Weak III Good Low Strong IV Good Low Weak V Poor High Strong Unfavourable VI Poor High Weak VII Poor

Relationship -Oriented

Category

VIII Poor Low Weak

Leader-Member Good Relations High Task Structure Position Power Strong

Low Strong

Explaining Fiedler
Task orientated leaders effective for HFS
- Everyone gets along, the task is clear & leader has power so take charge and provide direction

And HUFS
- Structure and task direction are needed, since relations are poor HT makes no difference to leaders popularity.

Relationship orientated leaders effective for MF.

- Good relationship skills help to improve relations, clarify task structure & establish position power.

So, leaders should - 1) know their style,

2) diagnose the situation.

- Poor match of leader style & situation is problematic

Limitations of Fiedlers Model

LPC scale is a questionable measure of leader behaviour. LPC score is assumed to be constant over time. Task structure and group atmosphere are not really contingency variables Research evidence weak. Confusing?

Discussion Point
Do you think leadership style if fixed or flexible? Why?

Hersey & Blanchards Theory

Focuses on the followers Contingency = Followers maturity Two dimensions of maturity: job & psychological
Job: ability to do a job (knowledge, skills, etc) Psychological: willingness to do a job

Two leadership dimensions: task and relationship which can be high or low As follower maturity increases, leaders should move from task to relationship behaviours
Two leadership and maturity dimensions are combined resulting in 4 leadership styles

Hersey & Blanchard (Situational Leadership)

Hersey & Blanchard (Situational Leadership)

Readiness of Followers

Behavior of Leaders

Unable and Unwilling Unable and Willing Able and Unwilling Able and Willing

Clear, Specific Directions High Task Orientation Support & Participation Let Followers Perform

Hersey & Blanchards Situational

Leadership Model
PARTICIPATING Low T High R Relationship SELLING High T High R

DELEGATING Low T Low R Task Behaviour R4 Able-willing R3 Able-unwilling

TELLING High T Low R

R2 R1 Unable-willing Unable-unwilling

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on followers readiness;

the more ready the followers (the more willing and able) the less the need for leader support and supervision.

LOW

Amount of Follower Readiness Amount of Leader Support & Supervision Required

HIGH

HIGH

LOW

Hersey & Blanchards Theory: Implications

Easily understood model with clear recommendations.
Leader must constantly monitor employees readiness/maturity levels.

Leadership style should change to fit changing situations.

Hersey & Blanchards Theory: Limitations

Difficulty in addressing different readiness levels in a team situation.

Follower readiness is the only contingency variable used.

Some leaders may not be able to adapt their styles to fit the situation. Model is not strongly supported by empirical data.

Hersey & Blanchard

Discussion Point
Which style have you used or experienced. Was it effective? Why?

Robert Houses Path-Goal Theory

Effective leaders clarify the path and remove obstacles to help followers achieve their work goals, while ensuring followers goals are compatible with those of the organisation. 4 leadership behaviours:
Directive (specific guidance) Supportive (friendly, concerned) Participative (consultative) Achievement oriented (sets challenging goals, emphasises excellence)

Robert Houses Path-Goal Theory

Two classes of contingency factors:

1. Environmental
Task structure Formal authority system Work group

2. Subordinate
Locus of control Experience Perceived ability

The Path-Goal Theory

Leader Behavior
Directive Achievementoriented Participative Supportive

Environment contingency factors

Task structure Formal authority system Work group

Outcomes
Performance Satisfaction

Subordinate contingency factors

Locus of control Experience Perceived ability

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

Path
Leader identifies employee needs.

Directive
Appropriate goals are established.

Directive
Leader connects rewards with goal(s)

Employees become satisfied and motivated and accept the leader. Supportive behavior

Leader provides assistance on employees path toward goals.

Participative behavior Motivation

Achievement
Effective performance occurs.

Both employees and organization better reach their goals.

Houses Path-Goal Theory: Implications

Directive style positively influences work on non-routine tasks. Supportive style positively influences work on routine tasks. Participative style positively influences work for employees with an internal locus of control.

Achievement-oriented style does not influence work on routine

tasks.

Path-Goal Theory

Discussion Point
Compare Fielders contingency model with the path- goal theory. What are the similarities and differences? Which do you prefer? Why?

LeaderMember Exchange Theory

Leaders select certain followers to be in (favourites) based on competence and/or compatibility & similarity to leader

Exchanges with these In followers will be higher quality than with those who are Out RESULT: In subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction Fairness ..... Self-fulfilling prophecy ......?

LeaderMember Exchange Theory

Personal Compatibility and/or Subordinate Competence

Leader

In-Group

High Interaction

Formal Relation

Subordinate D Subordinate E Subordinate F

Subordinate C

Trust

Subordinate B

Out-Group

Subordinate A

LMX Theory Research Findings

Supportive Leaders do differentiate

In-group have higher performance, lower turnover, greater

satisfaction with superiors and overall satisfaction. Self-fulfilling prophesy??

Leader-Participation Model
Premise: Rule based decision tree to guide leaders about when and when not to include subordinate participation in decision making Considers 12 (7) contingency variables to consider whether or not to include subordinates in decision making

Contingency Variables in the Revised

Leader-Participation Model
1. Importance of the decision

2. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision

3. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision 4. How well structured the problem is

5. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment

6. Whether followers buy into the organizations goals

Contingency Variables in the Revised

Leader-Participation Model
7. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution alternatives 8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision 9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement 10. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is justified 11.Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision 12. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills

Leader-Participation Model
Vroom & Yetton, revised by Vroom and Jago Leader Behaviours
Continuum of autocratic to group consensus (5 styles) Leaders behaviour should adjust to the task

Contingency Variables (decision tree)

7 contingencies; 12 in revised model

Evaluation of the Model

Subordinates may desire to participate even though the model advises an autocratic style Too complicated to use on a regular basis Consistent with knowledge about groups

Leader-Participation Model
Employee Involvement Continuum Increased Leader Control

Increased Employee Involvement

Review
Almost by definition, the role of leader requires two things: progress towards some goal, such as through task accomplishment, and the maintenance of an enthusiastic following through relationship building. Emphasis to one, to the exclusion of the other, will most likely prove ineffective.

Discuss this statement and give examples of its managerial implications. (Self assess)

Contemporary Issues in Leadership

Charismatic Leadership Transformational Leadership Trust and Leadership Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

Moral Leadership
Leadership and Cultural Differences

Charismatic Leadership
What is it? (Page 387) Who are they (examples)?

Key characteristics (Exhibit 12.3)

Born or made? Why is it important? When is Charisma a liability?

Vision and Articulation

Personal Risk

Charismatic leaders

Sensitivity to Environment Sensitivity to Followers

Unconventional Behaviour

Transformational Leadership
Transactional leadership

Motivate followers to achieve goals by clarifying task and role

requirements. Transformational leadership

Builds on top of transactional leadership but goes beyond

Individualised consideration to followers Frames the message; creates a vision

Inspires followers to transcend their self-interests, give extra effort and

achieve extraordinary results. Intellectual stimulation

Research suggests correlation with lower turnover, higher productivity

and satisfaction

Trust, Ethics and Leadership

TRUST: A positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically (rights & interests of vulnerable followers not abused). WHAT GENERATES TRUST? Integrity / Honesty Benevolence Competence / Ability See Covey reading on Moodle CONSEQUENCES OF TRUST Encourage risk taking Facilitates information sharing Effective groups Enhanced productivity

Trust and Leadership

Discussion Point
Its not possible to be both a trusting boss and a politically
astute leader. One requires openness and the other requires concealment.

Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain.

Emotional Intelligence
Self-awareness
Self-management Self-motivation Empathy Social Skills

Self assessment: EI
WHAT'S MY EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE SCORE? Indicate your level of agreement with these ten statements using the following scale: Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree or disagree Agree Strongly agree

 I am usually aware from moment to moment of my feelings as they change. I act before I think. When I want something, I want it now! I bounce back quickly from lifes setbacks. I can pick up subtle social cues that indicate others needs or wants. Im very good at handling myself in social situations. Im persistent in going after the things I want. When people share their problems with me, Im good at putting myself in their shoes. When Im in a bad mood, I make a strong effort to get out of it.

I can find common ground and build rapport with people from all walks of life.

Leadership: Key Findings

List and explain four key points you have taken from your reading of the literature on leadership. What is your leadership style? What might you do differently as a result of your knowledge about leadership? How is leadership linked to motivation, attitudes and communication?