Microbial Diversity

ACELLULAR INFECTIOUS AGENTS

A. VIRUSES
General Properties:
1. possess either DNA or RNA enclosed in a protein coat 2. requires a host cell for replication

(obligate intracellular parasites)

Generalized Structure:

Classification based on:

type of genetic material shape and size of capsid number of capsomeres presence/ absence of an envelope host disease

immunologic properties

Viral Reproduction:

B. VIROIDS AND PRIONS

Unlike viruses, viroids do not have protein capsids protecting their nucleic acid.
Viroids destroy economically important plants. For example, viroids are the main cause of diseases that have killed millions of coconut palms in the Philippines.

Fig. 1: Electron microscopic picture of potato spindle tuber viroid.

Fig. 2: Symptoms of viroid diseases: A: potato spindle tuber on tomato, B: avocado sun blotch, C: chrysanthemum stunt, D chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle

Unlike viruses, prions do not contain nucleic acid.

Prions have been found in the brains of sheep, killed by a disease called Scrapie. Prions have also been found in the brains of cows that died from the infamous Mad Cow disease.

This micrograph of brain tissue reveals the cytoarchitectural histopathologic changes found in bovine spongiform encephalopathy. The presence of vacuoles, i.e. microscopic holes in the gray matter, gives the brain of BSEaffected cows a sponge-like appearance when tissue sections are examined in the lab.

PROCARYOTES
A. DOMAIN BACTERIA
The bacteria are a large group of unicellular microorganisms. Have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria are ubiquitous

Most bacteria have not been characterized, and only about half of the phyla of bacteria have species that can be grown in the laboratory.

Bacterial Morphology.
Most bacterial species are either spherical, called cocci or rod-shaped, called bacilli. Some rodshaped bacteria, called vibrio, are slightly curved or comma-shaped; others, can be spiral-shaped, called spirilla, or tightly coiled, called spirochaetes.

Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells, others associate in characteristic patterns: Neisseria form diploids (pairs), Streptococcus form chains, and Staphylococcus group together in "bunch of grapes" clusters. Bacteria can also be elongated to form filaments, for example the Actinobacteria. Filamentous bacteria are often surrounded by a sheath that contains many individual cells. Certain types, such as species of the genus Nocardia, even form complex, branched filaments, similar in appearance to fungal mycelia.

Generalized Structure of Bacteria

Endospores
An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by bacteria from the Firmicute phylum which forms when a bacterium produces a thick internal wall that encloses its DNA and part of its cytoplasm. Examples include Bacillus and Clostridium. Endospore Formation
The primary function of most endospores is to ensure the survival of a bacterium through periods of environmental stress. Endospores are commonly found in soil and water, where they may survive for long periods of time.

Variations in endospore morphology: (1, 4) central endospore; (2, 3, 5) terminal endospore; (6) lateral endospore

Motility Structures
Motile bacteria can move using flagella, bacterial gliding, twitching motility or changes of buoyancy.

Types of Flagella
a. monotrichous, b. lophotrichous, c. amphitrichous, d. peritrichous

Flagellar Structure

Bacterial Metabolism
Bacterial metabolism is classified into nutritional groups on the basis of three major criteria: the kind of energy used for growth, the source of carbon, and the electron donors used for growth.
Nutritional type Source of energy Source of carbon Organic compounds (photoheterotrophs) or carbon fixation (photoautotrophs) Organic compounds (lithoheterotrophs) or carbon fixation (lithoautotrophs) Organic compounds (chemoheterotrophs) or carbon fixation (chemoautotrophs) Examples Cyanobacteria, Green sulfur bacteria, Chloroflexi, or Purple bacteria Thermodesulfobacteria, Hydrogenophilaceae, or Nitrospirae Bacillus, Clostridium or Enterobacteriaceae

Phototrophs

Sunlight

Lithotrophs

Inorganic compounds Organic compounds

Organotrophs

Filaments of photosynthetic cyanobacteria

Gram Staining Technique

Gram Reaction is based on the property of bacterial cell walls.

Gram positive walls tend to retain the stain after washing because of the thick peptidoglycan layer.

Reproduction by Binary Fission

Steps in binary fission

Kingdom Archaebacteria
Why a separate kingdom? Archaea differ chemically from other bacteria. 1) cell wall - different amino acids and sugars. Eubacteria have peptidoglycan Archaebacteria have varied polysaccharides but not peptidoglycan. 2) membrane lipids 3) ribosomes 4) enzymes - - - - - - - - - - - - > 5) cytochromes 6) gene sequences . . . And MORE
RNA polymerase

Archaeans are extremophiles!!!

1) methanogens decomposers, live in intestines, swamps & bogs sewage treatment 2) Halophiles love salt Great Salt Lake, Dead Sea 3) Thermophiles hot springs, geysers 4) Acidophiles Guess where?
Starr,635

EUCARYOTIC MICROBES

 photosynthetic

ALGAE

unicellular to multicellular plantlike

Unique Structures: a. pellicle- thickened cell membrane b. Stigma- light-sensing organelle

DIATOMS
tiny, usually unicellular algae that live in both fresh and sea water important members of the phytoplankton have silicon dioxide in their cell walls

have attractive geometric and varied appearance

DINOFLAGELLATES
unicellular, flagellated, often photosynthetic like diatoms are also important members of the phytoplankton some produce light (fire algae)

responsible for red tides

Ceratium tripos

The dramatic appearance of a red tide algal bloom at Leigh, near Cape Rodney, New Zealand.

GREEN ALGAE
most diverse group of algae photosynthetic

This species illustrates that green algae don't always have to look like green algae. The chloroplast often turns red when conditions become unfavourable. Haematococcus swims with the aid of two long flagella.

The desmid Netrium digitus has a beautifully folded chloroplast

Certainly one of the most spectacular flagellated green algae is Volvox. It forms a spherical colony. All the small cells of the colony possess two flagella and a small eyespot. With this the colony is able to swim towards the light.

GREEN ALGAE

Many green algae form long filaments. The cells stay attached after they divide. A small rather inconspicuous green algae is Chlorella. It can be found as an endosymbiont inside ciliates, hydra and other animals. They raise Chlorella as if they grow crops in a greenhouse.

BROWN ALGAE
a large group of mostly marine multicellular algae, including many seaweeds play an important role both as food, and for the habitats they form are the fastest growing plants and the largest of all the seaweeds

Dictyopteris woodwardi

Phaeophyta, brown algae in cross section.

RED ALGAE
eukaryotic cells without flagella and centrioles phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments (giving them their red color) most are multicellular, macroscopic, marine, and have sexual reproduction.
Several species of red algae include Halymenia, composed of large, flat blades (large pink seaweed, center); Gracilaria blodgettii, a cylindrical species (largest is in right foreground); Kallyemia westii, a pale pink species with perforated blades (extreme foreground, just left of center); and Coelarthrum cliftonii (whitish seaweed at top, just left of center).

Polysiphonia Red Algae

PROTOZOA
unicellular eucaryotes (more of animal-like than algae)

life cycle is characterized by a trophozoite (motile) and a cyst (dormant) stage

can be free-living or parasitic

mostly chemoheterotrophs and have complex nutritional needs

reproduction can be asexual (via binary fission) or sexual via (syngamy or conjugation) classified based on locomotory structures

Amoeba

Flagellate

Ciliate

Sporozoa

FUNGI
plant-like but lacks chlorophyll

unicellular to multicellular
saprophytic (play an ecological role as decomposers) can exist in the yeast or mold form

medically significant as causative agents of mycoses

reproduce sexually or asexually classified based on sexual reproductive structures (eg. basidia, ascus, zygospore, w/o sexual structure)

Mold Form (in cultures)

Yeast Form (in hosts)

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